Before the Scottish Survey: Alfred Harker the Geologist

The archival papers of the eminent petrologist Alfred Harker span his entire geological career of over 60 years. These are held by the Archive of the Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences (University of Cambridge). Harker was associated with the Department of Geology, the Woodwardian Museum and post-1904, the Sedgwick Memorial Museum. Importantly, his meticulously labelled notebooks provide an unprecedented insight into his development as a field and laboratory scientist. They chart Harker's beginnings as a fossil collector and observer of sedimentary stratigraphy on the North Yorkshire coast, his trips to Wales and Devon with the Sedgwick Club, and his later work in the English Lake District with his friend and colleague John. E. Marr. This paper examines in particular Harker's suite of 20 notebooks kept up until 1894, including his trip to Edinburgh in August 1892. This visit introduced the young scientist to the geology of Scotland for the first time. An overview of Harker's experience and contemporary contacts suggests some reasons why Sir Archibald Geikie later invited him to join the Scottish Survey staff in 1895.     

“地球系统探测新原理与新技术”优先领域与地球系统科学

地球系统科学是研究组成地球系统的子系统之间相互联系、相互作用的机制，研究地球整体结构、特征、功能和行为，研究地球系统变化的规律和控制这些变化机理的科学。对地观测、探测与分析技术的发展是地球科学创新思维来源的技术保障，同时对地球科学基础理论研究水平的提高起着重要的作用。21世纪地球科学的发展将更加重视发展地球系统科学的理论、方法与技术体系。“地球系统观测、探测新原理与新技术”被列入国家自然科学基金委员会地球科学部“十五”优先资助领域。回顾“十五”期间的资助情况，探讨该领域和地球系统科学的关系，将有利于“十一五”对该领域资助工作的调整与完善。     

全球矿床数据库建设现状、应用与展望

基于大数据和人工智能技术的数据驱动科学范式推动地球科学研究发生了变革。作为地球科学的重要分支,现代矿床学经历了百余年的发展,已经积累了海量的数据资料,这些数据的流通和共享是发挥其资源价值的关键。文章介绍了中国“地质云”与全球矿产资源储量动态评估数据库、澳大利亚深部地球探测计划AuScope、美国矿产资源在线空间数据库、国际经济地质学家学会(SEG)Geofacets数据库、美国标准普尔公司SNL Metals&Mining数据库等国际主要矿床数据库的情况;同时,列举了应用大数据思维和人工智能方法在区域成矿规律、矿床成因机制、矿床类型判别、资源潜力评价、战略咨询等方面取得的若干重要进展。文章提出,未来在深时数字地球国际大科学计划的平台下,整合全球海量矿床数据,建设开放、共享、统一的矿床大数据平台势在必行。     

高等学校《地球科学导论》课程教学改革与探索

在新技术、新方法不断涌现和学科融合发展的背景下,地球科学类课程教学在如何适应未来地球系统科学发展和人才培养需要方面,正面临前所未有的挑战和机遇。论文以浙江大学《地球科学导论》课程为例,对教学内容拓展、课程思政融入和课程教学现代化面临的挑战和应对策略做了介绍,并对未来学科发展和课程教学改革方向进行了思考和展望。分析指出,课程教学改革要以立德树人、铸魂育人为根本,夯实地球科学基础,拥抱新技术新方法,并面向地球系统科学的未来。     

Continental drift and a theory of convection

Early geologists considered that the Earth's surface is rigid and unchanging. They assumed that the whole Earth is static, except for enough sub-surface contraction to build mountains. After seismology developed, most geophysicists agreed. A few scientists, notably Wegener, favoured a more mobile Earth. About 1965 fresh evidence showed that both theories were too simple. This evidence explained why neither theory had been able to relate the whole Earth's behaviour to laws of physics. Hence different aspects of geology had only been solved separately which had fragmented Earth science. This paper proposes a compromise. It is that the rigid lithosphere fractures according to Navier's law of brittle failure which explains the properties and provides methods for classifying faults, plate boundaries and mountains and that the ductile mantle convects by laws of fluid flow in patterns partly controlled by lithospheric fractures. These dual, interacting influences explain tectonic behaviour. The pattern of currents is hidden. At any one time upwelling beneath continents only affects a few limited areas; today some are in southwestern United States, Central Asia, Botswana, Antarctica and rifts in East Africa, Europe and Siberia. Nevertheless recognition of upwelling currents may revolutionize geology because their cumulative effects have been great and neglected.     

Earth Science Education in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a mineral-rich country with a long history of Earth Science Education. The establishment of a University Geology Department in 1960 allowed the country to produce its own earth science graduates. These graduates are readily absorbed by the mining industry and few are without work. Demand for places at the University is high and entry standards reflect this. Students enter the University after GCE A levels in three science subjects and most go on to graduate. Degree programmes include B.Sc. General in Geology (plus another science), B.Sc. Honours in Geology and M.Sc. in Exploration Geology and in Geophysics. The undergraduate curriculum is broad-based and increasingly vocationally orientated. A well-equipped building caters for relatively large student numbers and also houses analytical facilities used for research and teaching. Computers are used in teaching from the first year onwards. Staff are on average poorly qualified compared to other universities, but there is an impressive research element. The Department has good links with many overseas universities and external funding agencies play a strong supporting role. That said, financial constraints remain the greatest barrier to future development, although increasing links with the mining industry may cushion this.     

Curricular changes in the Geology Department, University of Zimbabwe: towards a more vocational degree

Zimbabwe is a mineral-rich country with a long history of Earth Science Education. The establishment of a University Geology Department in 1960 allowed the country to produce its own earth science graduates. These graduates are readily absorbed by the mining industry and few are without work. Demand for places at the University is high and entry standards reflect this. Students enter the University after GCE A levels in three science subjects and most go on to graduate. Degree programmes include B.Sc. General in Geology (plus another science), B.Sc. Honours in Geology and M.Sc. in Exploration Geology and in Geophysics. The undergraduate curriculum is broad-based and increasingly vocationally orientated. A well-equipped building caters for relatively large student numbers and also houses analytical facilities used for research and teaching. Computers are used in teaching from the first year onwards. Staff are on average poorly qualified compared to other universities, but there is an impressive research element. The Department has good links with many overseas universities and external funding agencies play a strong supporting role. That said, financial constraints remain the greatest barrier to future development, although increasing links with the mining industry may cushion this.     

新一代对地观测系统的发展

对地观测系统(EOS，Earth Observation System)是获取空间对地信息、促进地球系统科学和空间信息科学等学科发展的支柱。长期以来，人们就期望着对自己居住的地球有一个全面深刻的了解，研究这种从几十年到几百年时间尺度的全球变化，依赖于观测系统和观测技术的发展。因此有必要建立一个对地球整体的观测系统，利用空间优势，获取有关地球体系及其各个组成部分的详细数据或信息。 近50年来，世界对地观测技术得到了迅猛的发展。NASA针对全球变化研究对建立长期的数据采集系统的实际需求，于20世纪80年代初开始规划地球观测系统（EOS）计划，并于90年代初实施。它包括一系列卫星、自然科学知识组成和一个数据系统，支持一系列极地轨道和低倾角卫星对地球的陆地表面、生物圈、大气和海洋进行长期观测。地球观测卫星系列是EOS计划的最基本和最重要的环节。EOS卫星系列计划在今后的10年内陆续发射一系列的太阳轨道环境遥感卫星，构成连续15年的数据采集系统，其规模在地球观测卫星发展史上是空前的。在EOS计划的基础上NASA规划了ESE战略计划，将继续发展国际新一代对地观测系统。迄今为止，Terra、Aqua和Arua卫星已经发射成功，引起地球遥感科学界的瞩目，为地球科学研究提供重要的数据资源。     

Impact of Conjugated Shear Joint of “X” Type on Macroscopic Karstification on the Basis of the Analysis of Google Earth Images

As viewed from space remote-sensing images (e.g. Google Earth images) of South Guizhou and North Guangxi, the authors found that macroscopic karst landscape on the Earth’s surface is strongly controlled by the Conjugated shear joint of “X” type. Joints of this kind constitute a huge infiltration network and act as channel-ways for the permeation of meteoric waters from the surface, thus, leading to the dissolution of carbonate rocks nearby. As a result, the karst landscape is formed, which is dominated by linear karst valleys. An “X” karst valley network structure appears in the area where horizontal strata are distributed, and a feather-like network structure appears in the area where vertical strata are distributed, respectively. When the water permeates downwards to the underground-water level, it will flow horizontally along the strike of “X” joints toward the local base level of erosion to form an “X” network system of underground conduits in the area where horizontal strata are distributed, but it is relatively complex, because of the joining of other joints. This is the first time we have made use of Google Earth images to study the karst environment. Therefore, it has been successful in research on the Earth’s geomorphology, which could only rely on aerial photos and satellite photos in the past. Google Earth images provide low-cost and applicable imaging materials for the study of Earth’s geomorphology and karst rocky desertification and its control.     

Ben Nevis and geologically driven changes in elevation

With a great deal of fanfare in March 2016 an Ordnance Survey press release announced 1345 m as the newly rounded height for Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in Scotland. After a series of complex calculations and surveying, new measurements underpinned by geophysical data revealed that the highest point in the United Kingdom had gone up to by only a few cm since 1949, when it was last measured. This time they were able to use GPS readings from satellites maintained by the US military to pin this down to millimetre precision. The height rose to 1344.527 metres (or 4411 feet and 1½ inches), but Britain's national mapping agency does not reveal exactly what the old height was. Oddly the seventh series 1: 63 360 map (Sheet 47‐Glencoe) published in 1960 was still using 4406 feet, 1343 m. This antiquated height was transferred from the 4406.3 ft inscribed on the six‐inch 1 : 10 560 (Inverness‐shire—Mainland sheet CLI) map published in 1902, relative to the Liverpool datum originally used by the Ordnance Survey. This was probably the base of the cairn upon which the triangulation pillar is built, and not even the nearby summit of Ben Nevis itself. Indeed the OS explains in a video on its website why modern 1 : 50 000 editions show two heights, with brackets around that for the natural high point, to make this distinction clear.     

地球系统科学的先驱——李四光

地球系统科学从20世纪80年代蓬勃兴起。国内外学者普遍认为地球系统科学（Earth System Science）概念是由美国国家航空航天局（NASA）1983年首次正式提出。然而如果我们重温李四光先生遗著,则不难发现早在20世纪20-30年代他就已将系统论引入地质学,提出了诸如构造系统（tectonic system）、大陆车阀说、海水进退规程等等新概念;1970年在他临终前出版的《天文·地质·古生物》,还将地球系统科学研究内容进一步扩大。可以说,系统科学思想贯彻在他的一生论著中,说明我国杰出地质学家李四光才是真正地球系统科学的先驱。李四光先生有诸多超前思维值得传承,他创建的“地质力学”的内容就是现代“系统构造地质学”加“地球系统科学”。      

美国国家科学基金会(NSF)地学学部(GEO)基金资助战略分析

美国国家科学基金会（NSF）是国际上具有重要影响的资助基础科学研究的政府基金机构，对促进美国基础科学研究的发展和保持世界领先地位做出了重要贡献。其对基础研究的资助政策、方向遴选、评审程序、经费分配、管理机制等，形成了一套行之有效的模式，对其它国家的基础研究政府资助机构具有借鉴和示范意义。在分析美国NSF近3年经费状况及其领域分配情况、近5年项目受理与批准情况、近12年项目评议情况的基础上，重点分析了地学学部（GEO）的近期重点资助领域、近3年按照NSF的整体优先领域和战略产出目标的经费分配情况、近10年按科学处的经费分配情况及变化趋势、各科学处2004—2006财政年度经费状况与重点资助领域、近10年项目的资助率与资助强度变化情况等。NSF地学学部是美国政府资助以大学为主的地学基础研究的主要渠道，其经费约占美国政府资助地学基础研究经费的62%。对NSF的基金项目资助战略，特别是对其地学学部项目的资助情况予以全面分析，对我国相关部门的管理工作有重要参考价值和借鉴意义。     

地球系统科学——全球性多学科创新的前沿

    当前,人类面临着全球性的一系列重大问题,要有效地解决这些问题,必须把地球作为统一的有机整体,研究组成地球系统的各部分之间的动态相互作用,即研究相互关联的流体子系统、生物地球化学循环子系统和固体地球子系统之间的动态相互作用。同时,把地球系统作为一个开放系统,从而把太阳输入作为控制地球演变的外源。
    运用系统思维的方式,把地球作为一个系统来进行研究,从而聚结成为一门崭新的地球系统科学——全球性多学科创新的前沿科学。这种研究方式是一种观念上的基本转变,即运用系统科学认识论和方法论,研究地球系统的整体行为、全球变化的性质和原因,因而地球系统科学就最有利于科学地理解和解决人类共同面临的全球性的重大问题。     

Discussion on Geodynamics of Three-body Motion

To determine the Earth's dynamics and their equations, which are crucial for Earth science research, this paper analyzes the interaction forces in the motion of a three-body system(namely, fixed, active, and passive points), based on the orbital motion. The mathematical derivation has been conducted strictly according to trigonometric functions with time and space as variables. In spatial transformation, related data items are simplified and replaced reasonably and necessarily according to the physical phenomenon to conduct derivations of planar to spatial transformation, through which the motion point has universal significance. Moreover, the polynomial equation for the dynamics has been obtained. Results indicate that the polynomial expression for the dynamics comprises the tidal force, the powerful mid-latitude Force(PML Force), and gravitation. Gravitation analysis shows that it is proportional to the dynamics quality, the size of the angular velocity of their deviation from the progenitor–paternal orbital plane's center position, and the square of the progenitor orbital plane's distance. However, it is inversely proportional to the distance of the paternal orbital plane and not related to another body's quality. Some past errors are addressed and some constructive conclusions are offered in the discussion of gravitation.     

地球的多圈层相互作用

地球科学的发展已逐渐进入对地球进行多圈层相互作用研究的新阶段。如大气中温室气体浓度剧变的天然原因何在 ;海水缺氧、厄尔尼诺和成烃极盛期由什么引起 ;什么因素导致生物的俱生与俱灭等人类社会和地学发展所需解决的一些难题 ,只有开展地球多圈层相互作用研究才能深入解决。在白垩纪中期发生了一系列相互关联的地学现象 ,可以作为研究地球多圈层相互作用和地球系统科学的切入口。     

地球系统、成矿系统到勘查系统

面对21世纪,矿床学和矿业发展有两大趋势(1)全球化;(2)矿产开发和环境保护的协调发展。矿床研究要扩展到全球背景。在简述地球系统和地球系统科学的基础上,提出了地质突发事件具有灾害和资源的两重性的观点。强调要从地球系统的大背景来研究成矿环境和成矿过程,也即将矿床成因和成矿系统研究提高到地球系统科学的层次,这是新世纪中矿床学发展的一个显著特点。成矿系统是一个有特色的地质系统,文中提出成矿系统论的5个要点(1)根据构造动力体制划分成矿系统大类;(2)多因耦合、临界转换的基本成矿机制;(3)矿床系列和地质-物探-化探-遥感异常系列共同构成的矿化网络;(4)矿床形成—变化—保存的全过程;(5)成矿系统的资源-环境双重效应。成矿系统论对于指导矿产勘查有重要意义。文中提出了成矿系统研究向勘查系统转化的原则和方法。通过对成矿系统的整体分析、空间分析、时间分析和历史分析,有助于明确找矿方向和目标。西藏朱诺斑岩铜矿的实践表明,勘查选区的核心问题是对找矿信息的分析、理解和把握。要将筛选关键找矿信息与分析成矿地质环境、控矿因素二者有机结合,赋予各种信息以客观、准确的地质内涵,是勘查选区成功的必要条件。最后,用“三环图”表示了地球系统、成矿系统和勘查系统的辩证关系。     

Earth's spin and volcanic eruptions: evidence for mutual cause‐and‐effect interactions?

The angular velocity of Earth's rotation shows decadal oscillations due to the lunisolar gravitational torque, as well as inter‐ or intra‐annual changes arising from the angular momentum exchange between the atmosphere and the solid Earth. The energies involved in the Length of Day (LOD) variations may affect the crustal deformation rate and seismic energy release on a global scale. We found significant correlation between the occurrences of major volcanic eruptions and the LOD pattern since AD 1750. On a multiyear scale, eruption frequency worldwide increases with LOD changes. Moreover, the injection of sulphur gases into the atmosphere during major eruptions is accompanied by significant inter‐annual LOD variations. This provides evidence of complex mutual cause‐and‐effect interactions: stress changes induced by multiyear variations in Earth's spin may affect climactic volcanic activity; also, the atmosphere's dynamic response to volcanic plumes may result in global changes of wind circulation and climate, with consequent LOD variations.     

English Jurassic Limestone Country: Stroud,Central Cotswolds

The area around Stroud, a small English market town perched on the steep west‐facing Cotswold escarpment, offers some of the most dramatic outcrops of Jurassic limestone in the UK. From sweeping vistas of the Severn Vale, to the deeply wooded river valleys that indent the escarpment, its landscape is undeniably one of the area's greatest assets. Recently, the geology and physiography of the landscape has been drawn into close focus by several notable UK media stories: protests against hydraulic fracturing (fracking) in the underlying Lias clays; landslides causing weeks of repeated disruption across the Cotswold road and railway networks; and the recent death of a local engineer in a pit collapse of Fuller's Earth. In order to understand these stories in greater depth, it is useful to consider the story of Stroud's unique physical setting.     

Growing up a geologist—John Phillips and William Smith

William Smith's 1815 Map of the Geology of England and Wales was a ground‐breaking achievement that changed the understanding of geology forever. However, perhaps Smith's greatest contribution to science lay in nurturing the talent of his orphaned nephew, John Phillips, who grew up to become one of the most versatile and distinguished geologists and polymaths of the nineteenth century.