Principles of Probabilistic Regional Mineral Resource Estimation

Five principal sources of uncertainty in quantitative mineral resource estimation are listed and illustrated by means of a simple example (mosaic model) and a case history study for large copper deposits in the Abitibi area of the Canadian Shield. Abitibi copper potential originally was estimated on the basis of 1968 estimates of production and reserves totalling 3.12 Mt Cu. This prognostication now could be evaluated on the basis of 2008 copper production and reserves totalling 9.50 Mt Cu. An earlier hindsight study performed on the basis of 1977 data (totalling 5.23 Mt Cu) showed seven new discoveries occurring either in the immediate vicinities of known deposits or on broad regional copper anomalies predicted from the 1968 inputs. By 1977, the global geographic distribution pattern of large copper deposits in the Abitibi area had stabilized. During the next 30 years, new copper was essentially found close to existing deposits, much of it deeper down in the Earth's crust. In this paper, uncertainties associated with copper ore tonnage are analyzed by comparison of 2008 data with 1968 data using (a) log-log plots of size versus rank, and (b) lognormal QQ-plots. Straight lines fitted by least squares on these plots show that 1968 slopes provide good estimates of 2008 slopes but 1968 intercepts are much less than 2008 intercepts. In each linear log-weight versus log-rank plot, the slope is related to fractal dimension of a Pareto frequency distribution, and in a lognormal QQ-plot it is determined by logarithmic variance. The difference between 2008 and 1968 intercepts represents the increase in copper ore production and reserves from 1968 to 2008. The Pareto model fits actual copper and massive sulphides increase over the past 40 years better than the lognormal frequency distribution model for 10 km×10 km cells on favorable environments in the Abitibi area.      

Geology and mineralization of the Tiegelongnan supergiant porphyry-epithermal Cu (Au,Ag) deposit (10 Mt) in western Tibet,China: A review

The Tiegelongnan Cu(Au,Ag)deposit in central Tibet contains more than 10 Mt of copper ranking 29 th in the world.It is characterized by typical porphyry-epithermal alteration and mineralization.In order to improve the understanding of porphyry-epithermal copper deposit in Tibet,new zircon U-Pb age and sulfur isotope data along with published data in the Tiegelongnan are presented to investigate the formation and preservation mechanism.Ore-related intrusive rocks in the Tiegelongnan including Early Cretaceous(about 120 Ma)granodiorite porphyry and diorite porphyry are closely related to the northward subduction of Bangongco-Nujiang ocean.Sulfur mainly comes from deep magma,and ore-forming fluid is affected by both magmatic and meteoric water.The metallogenic setting of Tiegelongnan is consistent with those of Andean porphyry copper deposits in South America.The cover of the Meiriqiecuo Formation volcanic rocks,Lhasa-Qiangtang collision and India-Eurasian collision have significance in the preservation and uplift of the deposit.The formation,preservation and discovery of Tiegelongnan play an important role in exploration of ancient porphyry-epithermal deposits in Tibet.     

Carbon cycle variability in tropical Atlantic across two Early Eocene hyperthermals

Early Eocene hyperthermals are geologically short-lived global warming events and represent fundamental perturbations to the global carbon cycle and the Earth’s ecosystem due to massive additions of isotopically light carbon to the ocean-atmosphere system.They serve as ancient analogs for understanding how the oceanic carbonate system and surface-ocean ecosystem would respond to ongoing and future climate change.Here,we present a continuous carbonate record across the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2(ETM2 or H1,ca.54.1 Ma)and H2(ca.54 Ma)events from an expanded section at Ocean Drilling Program Site 1258 in tropical Atlantic.The abundant calcareous nannofossils and moderate carbonate content throughout the studied interval suggest this record was deposited above the calcite compensation depth(CCD),but below the lysocline and under the influence of terrestrial dilution.An Earth system model cGENIE is used to simulate the carbon cycle dynamics across the ETM2 and H2 to offer insights on the mechanism of the rapid warming and subsequent recovery in climate and ecosystem.The model suggests moderate changes in ocean pH(0.1–0.2 unit)for the two scenarios,biogenic methane from a rechargeable methane capacitor and organic matter oxidation from thawing of the permafrost.These pH changes are consistent with a recent independent pH estimate across the ETM2 using boron isotopes.The carbon emission flux during the ETM2 is at least an order of magnitude smaller than that during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum(PETM)(0.015–0.05 Pg C yr^-1vs.0.3–1.7 Pg C yr^-1).The comparable pre-and post-event carbonate contents suggest the lysocline did not over deepen following the ETM2 at this tropical Atlantic site,indicating spatial heterogeneity in the carbonate system due to strong dilution influence from terrestrial weathering and riverine discharge at Site 1258.     

Geochronological and geochemical constraints on the petrogenesis of late Mesoproterozoic mafic and granitic rocks in the southwestern Yangtze Block

Late Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks in the SW Yangtze Block are important for understanding the role of it in reconstruction of the Rodinia supercontinent.In the present study,we report new geochronological,geochemical,and Nd-Hf isotopic data for the Cuoke plagioclase amphibolites and granites in the SW Yangtze Block.Geochronological results show that the plagioclase amphibolites and granites have similar late Mesoproterozoic zircon U-Pb ages of 1168-1162 Ma,constituting a bimodal igneous assemblage.The plagioclase amphibolites have high and variable TiO2 contents(1.15-4.30 wt.%)and Mg#(34-66)values,similar to the tholeiitic series.They are characterized by enrichment in LREEs and LILEs,and have OIB-like affinities with positive Nb and Ta anomalies.The plagioclase amphibolites have positive whole-rockεNd(t)(+3.2 to+4.3)and zirconεHf(t)(+4.3 to+10.7)values,indicating that they were derived from an OIB-like asthenospheric mantle source.The granites belong to the reduced peralkaline A-type series and have negativeεNd(t)value of-6.0 andεHf(t)values of-5.8 to-13.8,indicating a derivation from the partial melting of ancient mafic lower crust.In combination with the~1.05-1.02 Ga bimodal igneous assemblage in the SW Yangtze Block,we propose that the Cuoke 1168-1162 Ma igneous rocks were likely formed in a continental rift basin and argue against the existance of Grenvillian Orogen in the SW Yangtze Block during the late Mesoproterozoic.     

Analysis of prospecting polymetallic metallogenic belts by comprehensive geophysical method

This paper is based on the analysis and research on the silver-lead-zinc polymetallic ore in New Ballyhoo Banner in southern Manzhouli of Inner Mongolia.Because metal mineralization brings rock formations,the geophysical features such as low resistivity,high polarization rate and uneven distribution of magnetization,the comprehensive geophysical methods are adopted including high-precision magnetic measurement,high-power induced polarization,IP field middle gradient and controlled source audio-frequency magnetotellurics.In the survey work of multi-metal ore deposits,from surface sweeping to single point measurement,and from single point to section going deeper layer by layer,the resolution of measurement is continuously improved,and various geophysical methods support and complement each other,so explorers can successfully predict the direction,scale and volume of the metallogenic belts in conjunction with geochemical exploration,geological survey and drilling.It has provided a strong basis for completing the exploration task of predicting the reserve volume of ore bodies.The research conclusions of this exploration case have thus a high reference value in the same type of exploration work.     

利用Grapher绘制彩色渐变剖面平面图

在物探扫面工作中,有大量的剖面数据需要绘制成剖面平面图,要求寻找一个高效快速的制图方法.通过对Grapher 自动化功能的分析和实践,编制程序实现了快速绘制彩色渐变剖面平面图的需求,说明利用自动化脚本能够在获得精美图件的同时,可以极大地提高作图效率.     

冷生风化作用对边坡稳定性影响

The experiment shows that considerable influence on density rock properties are subjected by nival weathering conditions. The main parameter defining the rock suitability for solution various engineering and geological problems is its firmness limit on single axis pressing. The firmness properties of sandstone being in absolutely dry condition for Kabakta suite at the beginning of investigation was 64.7 MPa, for Nerungri suite sandstones it was 48. 7 MPa. The investigations showed how much the nival conditions of cryohypergenesis of rock sandstones in Kabakta and Nerungri suites have destructive influence in comparison with aquale and more over aerale conditions. In the aerale conditions sedimentary rock firmness of Kabakta suite decreased to 23.2 MPa, in aquale conditions to 16.5, and in the nivale conditions to 8.9 MPa. In Nerungri suite sandstones are according to 17.7 MPa, 11.1 MPa, and 6 MPa after 300 freezing and thawing cycles. The common sandstone firmness decrease of Kabakta suite was 25 %,of Nerungri suite it was 23.8%. Marlstone samples after 400 FTC decrease to 62% in the nivale conditions and to 33 % in the aerale conditions. After 3～5 years of exploitation marlstone will destruct due to structural and textural inhomogenesis up to gruss, i.e. it will not meet the requirements of durability.Judging by the results of carried out experiment it should be concluded that by cryogenic weathering the sedimentary rocks (sandstones) and rocks with schistose lithogenic texture (marlstone) are subjected to disintegration. The primary rock samples firmness considerably influences on the disintegration rate.     

Cenozoic Sea‐land Transition and its Petroleum Geological Significance in the Northern South China Sea

The process of Cenozoic sea-land changes in the northern South China Sea(SCS)controlled the sedimentary filling pattern and played an important role in the petroleum geological characteristics of the northern marginal sedimentary basins.Under the control of the opening process of the SCS,the northern SCS Cenozoic transgression generally showed the characteristics of early in the east and late in the west,and early in the south and late in the north.The initial transgression occurred in the Eocene in the Taixinan Basin(TXNB)of the eastern SCS,while the transgression occurred until the Pliocene in the Yinggehai Basin(YGHB)of the western SCS.International Ocean Discovery Program(IODP)expeditions(Expeditions 367/368)revealed that the initial transgression of the SCS basin occurred at approximately 34 Ma,which was the initial opening time of the SCS.The period of drastic changes in the sedimentary environment caused by large-scale transgression corresponded to the opening time of the southwestern subbasin(approximately 23 Ma),which also represented the peak of the spreading of the SCS.The sea-land transition process controls the distribution of alternating continent-marine facies,marine facies source rocks and reservoirs in the basins.The marine facies source rocks of the basins in the northern SCS have a trend of gradually becoming younger from east to west,which is consistent with the regional process of gradual transgression from east to west.Regional sea-level changes were comprehensively influenced by SCS opening and global sea-level changes.These processes led to the early development in the east and south and late development in the west and north for the carbonate platform in the SCS.Carbonate platforms form another type of"selfgenerating and self-accumulating"oil-gas reservoir in the northern SCS.The sea-land transition controlled the depositional filling patterns of different basins and laid the foundation of marine deposits for oil and gas resources.The source-reservoircap assemblage in the northern SCS was controlled horizontally by provenance supply and sedimentary environmental changes caused by sea-land transition and vertically by the tectonic evolution of the SCS and regional sea-level changes.     

《同一个地质计划》的进展与对策

《同一个地质计划（OneGeology）》最初由英国地质调查局于2006年2月提出,已得到全球地学组织的支持。到2007年底,国际地球科学联合会等10个全球学术团体与国际地学组织、2个跨国公司、2位知名人士和67个国家的地质调查局参加了该计划。《同一个地质计划》是各个国家的地质调查局贡献给国际行星地球年的、约1：100万比例尺的、可在网络上很容易取得最好世界地质图数据的计划。该计划的目标是：使可用的地质图数据能被更多的人使用,使需要的人受益,促进互操作能力的增强。《同一个地质计划》的实施,可以提升全球、大陆、行星、海洋地球科学图的编制和出版的合作能力。深化对一些地区地质问题的研究,并可作为国际地球行星年一个切实可用的成果,提升国家地质调查局的形象;运用管理地学知识的领导能力和经验,通过教育、科学、文化和交流。能够处理全球污染对社会、经济和环境的影响问题。促进全球环境保护公约的执行,减缓自然灾害,使全球经济可持续发展,人们的居住环境更安全、更繁荣。精神生活更丰富、更快乐。因此,实施该计划不仅有现实意义,更有重要而深远的政治意义。     

Geochemical Characterizations of Source and Depositional Environment of Hydrocarbons in the Lake Albert Rift Basin

Despite the upsurge in hydrocarbon exploration in the Lake Albert Rift Basin(LARB)over the past three decades,systematic characterization of hydrocarbon compositions remains lacking,leading to uncertainties in source rock and oil generation determination.We characterized crude oil compositions and oil sand samples in the northern and southern subbasins of LARB.The relative abundance of normal and branched linear alkanes,hopanes,steranes,and aromatic hydrocarbon suggest that northern and southern hydrocarbons were deposited in anoxic to suboxic lacustrine environments and share similar biological source compositions(i.e.,a mixture of plants and aquatic algae and bacteria).Relative to southern samples,northern samples show more negative δ¹³C values for oils,saturates and aromatics,indicating longer migration paths,and exhibit higher MPI-1,DNR-1 and 4-/1-MDBT ratios,indicating higher maturity.Between the two possible sets of source rocks(upper Miocene and Jurassic strata),the positive δ¹³C values of saturated hydrocarbons(average=-20.5‰)suggest that the upper Miocene lacustrine shale is the most likely candidate.Oleanane index(<5% in our samples)does not exclude either source rock possibility,and C₂₈/C₂₉ regular sterane(average=0.63)may be biased by high terrestrial inputs in a lacustrine setting.Together,our data show that northern and southern oils originate from the same source rocks but different oil kitchens.Given the similar geochemical characteristics of southern and northern oils,previous exploration successes in the northern subbasin likely suggest similar potential in the southern sector,while other elements influencing exploration success must be also evaluated.     

马兰黄土与Cr(Ⅲ)水岩相互作用模型的建立与验证

使用SEM、EDS、IR、XRD等仪器,分析了马兰黄土的物化组成、表面结构及表面位浓度和阳离子交换容量等特征,并利用这些数据建立了马兰黄土-Cr(Ⅲ)的水岩相互作用模型及变初始浓度、去碳酸岩盐以及形态提取实验。通过对比模拟结果与实验结果,验证模型的可靠性,并初步获取了马兰黄土与水溶液中Cr(Ⅲ)作用过程中所发生的相关反应及其强度。结果显示,在实验浓度(1～100mg/L)范围内,该模型能够很好地描述马兰黄土与水中Cr(Ⅲ)的反应过程,其模型精度达90%。本成果将进一步丰富马兰黄土与Cr(Ⅲ)水岩相互作用的机理研究。     

马兰黄土孔隙结构特征——以赵家岸地区黄土为例

颗粒间的孔隙分布特征从本质上控制着马兰黄土的宏观结构,影响马兰黄土的强度特性。马兰黄土的微观结果分析已逐渐成为研究黄土基本特性的一个新方向。本文通过固结实验、扫描电镜和ImageJ图像分析软件对赵家岸滑坡地区马兰黄土的孔隙分布和变形特性进行分析。首先确定了适合ImageJ图像分析的扫描电镜二维照片的阈值和图像拍摄最佳倍数;获取了原状马兰黄土在不同含水量固结试验前后的孔隙数量和孔隙面积的分布特征;揭示了大、中架空孔隙为黄土固结过程中的主要变形区;建立了马兰黄土孔隙中大架空孔隙、中架空孔隙和小架空孔隙的逐步破坏模式;明确了水对孔隙破坏的促进作用,当含水量增加到液限范围时,大、中型架空孔隙会出现加速的破坏现象。     

北京斋堂雁翅地区的黄土

北京西山永定河支流清水河流域的斋堂盆地,是著名的“马兰黄土”的得名地,是我国黄土与三趾马红土首次划分之处。斋堂、雁翅一带又是京郊黄土最为发育的地区之一。近百年来,已见不少有关本区黄土与地文期的报导。     

黄土对Cr(III)的吸附特性及机理研究

铬是一种重金属痕量元素,人体通过食物链摄入过量的铬会在人体内富集,随之产生中毒反应。研究Cr(III)的浓度、反应时间、反应温度、pH值等因素对Cr(III)在黄土上吸附特性的影响,结果表明黄土对Cr(III)的吸附非常迅速,并且吸附量非常大,等温吸附模型Freundlich和Dubinin-Radushkevich(D-R)模型都能很好地解释Cr(III)在黄土上的吸附过程。热动力学分析表明,吸附是一个自发的过程,升温可促进吸附作用的进行。随着温度的不断升高,Cr(III)的吸附量逐渐增大。溶液的pH值是影响Cr(III)吸附效果的一个重要因素,当pH>6时,Cr(III)几乎完全被去除。利用X光衍射图谱和红外光谱分析,探讨黄土与Cr(III)的结合机制,黄土中的高岭土、石英等黏土矿物以及有机质成分对吸附过程起重要作用。     

汉江上游I级河流阶的形成及对东亚季风 变化的响应

对郧县—白河段汉江Ⅰ级河流阶地上风成黄土的沉积学、理化性质、地球化学和年代学进行了系统研究。结果表明,汉江Ⅰ河流阶的形成不晚于25 ka BP;黄土具有马兰黄土(L1)→过渡黄土(Lt)→古土壤(S0)→全新世黄土(L0)→表土(TS)的地层序列,与渭河谷地的黄土地层序列完全可比;25~11.5 ka BP,冬季风强盛,气候冷干,从11.5 ka BP开始,冬季风逐渐减弱,气候开始向暖湿方向逐步转化,从8.5 ka BP开始,夏季风达到了末次冰期结束后的鼎盛时期,3.1 ka BP前后,东亚季风格局发生变化,夏季风减弱,重新进入一个相对干冷的时期,而人类活动对地表的影响形成了表土;汉江上游谷地黄土记录的末次冰期后季风逐渐加强、中全新世季风强盛、随后季风衰退和气候变干的夏季风演变模式与渭河谷地黄土的记录高度一致,与邻区石笋和泥炭记录的季风变化趋势也有良好的可比性,但与石笋/泥炭记录的夏季风强盛期的起始时间(9.3~4.2 ka BP)并不完全一致。     

黄土高原的地理信息系统(GIS)试研究

黄土高原水土流失举世瞩目,现在的侵蚀继承和发展了古代的侵蚀,受自然和社会双重因素制约.随着人类社会进步和历史演进,自然与社会因子影响侵蚀的比例不断发生改变.本文从数字黄土高原的角度研究黄土的分布特征和堆积、侵蚀过程,建立了地貌、地质、黄土剖面、水文等空间数据库,研制数字黄土分布图件,展示黄土分布特点,构建黄土的三维分布模型,模拟主要地质时期黄土分布,探讨了侵蚀过程和人类活动对侵蚀的影响.     

黄土高原马兰黄土粘土矿物的定量研究

本文在回顾和总结中国西北黄土粘土矿物研究进展的基础上,提供了采用现代X-射线衍射(XRD)定量测试技术(包括粘土矿物样品处理和全自动数据处理技术)对陕北晋西12个县市马兰黄土粘土矿物定量研究的最新结果。测试结果表明,马兰黄土的主要粘土矿物为伊利石／蒙脱石混层矿物(相对含量为60％～70％),而不是以往所认为的伊利石。伊利石在黄土中主要呈两种形式存在,即单矿物伊利石和伊／蒙混层矿物中的伊利石。研究还发现,各地马兰黄土粘土矿物组成变化不大,但在神木、河曲、偏关一带伊／蒙混层比有局部增高的现象。根据扫描电子显微镜观察,黄土中粘土矿物不是以单粒形式存在,而主要是以集粒粘附物的形式包裹在碎屑颗粒表面。黄土中粘土矿物组成及其存在形式一方面可以充分揭示黄土物源区的表生化学环境特征;另一方面,伊／蒙混层矿物作为一种广泛分布的膨胀性粘土矿物和它在黄土粘土矿物中所占地位,对于认识马兰黄土在水作用下的湿陷变形和强度衰减的本质具有重要意义。     

红寺堡盆地晚更新世沉积特征及古气候背景

萨拉乌苏组、水洞沟组和马兰黄土是青藏高原东北缘弧形构造带乃至鄂尔多斯高原西部晚更新世发育的3套重要的沉积层系,但三者之间的沉积接触关系一直存在着争议。以红寺堡盆地为研究对象,在路线地质调查的基础上,结合砂岩石英颗粒表面扫描电镜分析及黏土矿物含量分析,查明3套地层之间的纵横向变化关系,确定红寺堡盆地晚更新世接受黄土沉积的最早时限及所处的古气候背景。研究认为:红寺堡盆地萨拉乌苏组与水洞沟组和马兰黄土之间是上下叠置关系,湖盆中心萨拉乌苏组上覆水洞沟组,湖盆边缘萨拉乌苏组上覆马兰黄土;水洞沟组与马兰黄土之间为同时异相的相变关系,在湖盆中心为湖相沉积,在湖盆边缘地形相对较高的部位,则为同时期的风成黄土沉积;红寺堡盆地接受黄土沉积的最早时限为萨拉乌苏组沉积末期,萨拉乌苏组顶部局部可见风成沉积的柱状节理,砂岩石英颗粒表面具有水成和风成兼顾的特征。红寺堡盆地晚更新世经历了温暖湿润-寒冷干旱-温暖湿润-寒冷干旱的气候变化过程,在萨拉乌苏组二段与水洞沟组中部,伊利石和绿泥石含量表现为相对低值,而蒙脱石和高岭石含量表现为相对高值,蒙脱石含量明显增加,但同时又有高岭石矿物的出现,总体上反映了温暖湿润的古气候特征,两期温暖湿润的环境分别对应于深海氧同位素曲线MIS3与MIS5阶段,具有全球对比意义。研究成果为鄂尔多斯高原西部生态环境的演化及综合治理提供了基础地质依据。      

晋中马兰黄土的K0固结特性

静止土压力系数K₀描述土体的原位应力状态,是许多工程计算的重要参数。本文通过等应变速率K₀固结试验,研究原状和重塑马兰黄土的K₀变化规律,并探讨这种变化与内部结构的关系。结果表明：(1)原状和重塑马兰黄土的K₀均不是恒定值,根据土体结构的变化,其固结过程可分为初始阶段和稳定阶段。初始阶段K₀(以K_0i表示)随含水率的增加呈线性增长,稳定阶段K₀(以K_0s表示)随含水率的增加呈双曲线增长,且K_0s始终大于K_0i。(2)原状马兰黄土的K_0i小于重塑马兰黄土,原因在于原状马兰黄土具有很强的簇聚结构,这种竖向结构弱化了水平应力的增长;而重塑马兰黄土趋于均质,呈各向同性,进而导致较高的K_0i。(3)稳定阶段,原状马兰黄土的初始结构被破坏,与重塑马兰黄土近似,使得两者的K_0s相近。(4)相较于其他类土,原状马兰黄土的...     

马兰黄土沉积速率及其地质意义

马兰黄土平均沉积速率为0.078毫米/年.但又可分为三个沉积速率层段,即上部中等,中部最大,下部最小.沉积速率的变化与黄土颗粒粒径有关.粒度粗,分选好.沉积速率最小.反之.沉积速率则大.更重要的是,沉积速率受控于古气候的演化.气候愈旱干、寒冷.沉降黄土的次数增多.沉积速率就愈大.相反.暖湿气候则不利于黄土沉积.黄土-古土壤系列反映了这期间气候韵律和黄土沉积速率的关系.