Deterioration mechanisms of tuffs in Midas monument

Slightly weathered white and pink tuffs of the Midas monument have deterioration problems. In this study, depths and characteristics of the weathering zones developed within the tuffs are investigated through optical microscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), chemical analyses, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and some index parameters. Accelerated weathering tests including wetting–drying, freezing–thawing and salt crystallization are performed, and durability assessment methods are used to predict the durabilities of the tuffs. The findings are compared with field observations. By examining quantitative weathering indices and comparing them with thin section studies, it is found that thin section analyses of the crystals, LoI, and WPI are good indicators to quantify the depth of weathering for the tuffs. However, thin section studies have limited value for fine-grained tuffaceous matrix. The chemical weathering of the tuffs produces weathered zones that are 4.5-cm thick within the white tuff and 2.5-cm thick within the pink tuff. Physical weathering causes scaling of outer layers of the tuffs and fracturing of feldspars along their cleavage planes. However, variations of the index properties of the tuffs due to weathering are not so significant to quantify the weathering depths in the tuffs. Among the accelerated weathering tests, salt crystallization is found to be the most destructive environmental condition. Pigeon droppings rich in NO₃¹⁻ are found to be the main source of soluble salt at the Midas monument. The salt transported up by capillary rise due to surface water causes spalling of the tuffs in the capillary zone. Surface water and salt of any kind in the close vicinity of the monument should be totally eliminated for the purpose of conservation. Field observations and the durability equations reveal that the white tuff is less durable than the pink tuff. Wet-to-dry strength ratio yields a better stone durability assessment among various durability methods used in this study.     

内蒙古二连盆地凝灰岩潜山多期风化壳形成及油气成藏效应

火山喷发的多期性是导致凝灰岩潜山纵向多期风化壳(带)发育的重要原因。从地球化学、测井响应特征和岩石学 证实了二连盆地凝灰岩潜山多期风化壳(带)的存在及其特征:(1)哈31井凝灰岩地层在1062~1080 m和1165~1179 m两 个井段表现为 K,Na,Ca 等元素淋滤,CIA 指数较大,而 Al,Fe,Mn,P 等元素相对富集,S/A 指数变小;(2)这两个层段 测井响应表现为风化壳的特征,而且其测井曲线在纵向上具旋回特征并有连井上的可对比性;(3)不同喷发期次形成的凝 灰岩结构、组分以及粒度不同。凝灰岩潜山多期风化壳(带)的存在对潜山油气藏的形成具有重要作用,成藏效应主要表 现在储集层垂向分带性、风化壳油藏(晚期风化壳中)和内幕油藏(早期风化壳中)纵向叠置和复式油气聚集成藏模式等 3 个方面。文中对多期凝灰岩古风化壳的认识扩展了火山岩潜山的勘探深度,为火山岩潜山内幕油气勘探提供了理论依据。     

准噶尔盆地滴西地区石炭系火山岩储集性能分布规律研究

火山岩储集性能分布的非均质性非常强,探索其分布规律成为火山岩油气勘探的难点和重要任务。本文以实际岩心及其分析化验等资料为基础,从滴西地区取心最佳储集性能段、最差储集性能段、风化壳储集性能分布模式、薄层熔岩储集性能分布模式、厚层熔岩储集性能分布模式等方面总结了石炭系火山岩储集性能的垂向分布规律,同时分析了储集性能的平面分布情况。火山熔岩储集性能在垂向上的分布差异,成岩阶段主要受岩相的影响,后期主要受构造作用及风化溶蚀作用等的影响。受成岩阶段岩相的影响,溢流相上部亚相和下部亚相均有可能形成较好的储集性能。与碎屑岩互层的薄层熔岩常具有较好的储集性能。与碎屑岩互层的厚层熔岩段的底部储集性能可能较好,其次是顶部,而中部常沦落为储集性能相对较差的位置。风化壳的风化粘土层、强风化带、中等风化带、弱风化带、未风化带5个垂向分带结构中,中等风化带往往具备相对最佳的储集条件。应用W风化指数新型工具对火山岩进行风化程度评估显示,准噶尔盆地火山岩具有多期风化的特征,并残留有大量未风化、轻微风化及中等风化的火山岩,这其中不乏储集性能优良的岩性段。从平面分布来看,研究区域火山岩储集性能具有强烈的各向异性特征,常表现为局部富集,快速变迁,随机分布。     

Melilitite-carbonatite tuffs in the Laetolil Beds of Tanzania

The upper unit of the Laetolil Beds, 45 to 60 m thick, is about 80% wind worked or eolian tuff and 20% air-fall tuff. The air-fall tuffs comprise a phonolitic tuff and numerous thin tuffs of original melilitite-carbonatite composition. Most of the melilitite-carbonatite tuffs consist largely of sand-sized lava globules and crystals cemented by calcite. Evidence of former carbonatite ash is provided by calcite globules, fenestral textures, and high contents of Ba and Sr in early-deposited calcite. These air-fall tuffs were produced by volatile-rich eruptions of highly fluid magma. In a typical eruptive cycle, lava droplets were followed by crystals which increased in size during the eruption. Commonly the final event was an eruption of fine ash and carbonatite globules. Particularly violent explosions ejected blocks of lava and plutonic rock 10 to 15 cm in diameter for distances of 20 km.The climate was semiarid, and melilitite-carbonatite ash layers were first cemented by soluble salts such as trona resulting from incongruent solution of the carbonatite ash by rainfall. Repeated solution and crystallization of salts resulted in a polygonal fracture pattern in the thinner tuffs. Ash layers not cemented by soluble salts were eroded and redeposited by wind to form eolian tuffs. Subsequently both the air-fall and eolian tuffs were modified by several diagenetic stages, mostly in the vadose zone, to form rocks consisting principally of montmorillonite, phillipsite, and calcite. At an early stage calcium carbonate derived from carbonatite ash was precipitated as micrite both as a cement and replacement of organic matter. Glass, nepheline, and melilite were now weathered to clay, releasing components to form phillipsite. Calcite spar was precipitated last, as a replacement, cement, and pore filling. Unaltered glass, preserved in some of the eolian tuffs, has an unusually high content of Na, K, and Fe for a melilitite composition.These beds contain a rich fauna, notable for the excellent preservation of delicate fossils such as bovid dung, land snails, and bird eggs. This preservation is attributed, at least in part, to carbonatite ash. Carbonatite ash was also responsible for the preservation of footprints in one of the tuffs.     

三塘湖盆地条湖组含沉积有机质凝灰岩致密储层特征

含沉积有机质凝灰岩是三塘湖盆地一种特殊类型的致密储层,对这套含沉积有机质凝灰岩致密储层的研究将为提高我们对非常规致密储层的认识提供一个很好的机会。文中通过凝灰岩样品岩石矿物组成、薄片、扫描电镜、石英结晶度和物性等的分析,阐述了三塘湖盆地二叠系条湖组含沉积有机质凝灰岩致密储层的特征。结果表明：条湖组凝灰岩致密储层的岩石类型主要有玻屑凝灰岩和晶屑玻屑凝灰岩,凝灰岩中最主要的矿物是石英,平均含量可以达到50%以上。凝灰岩致密储层的储集空间类型可以分为脱玻化作用形成的矿物粒间孔,溶蚀作用形成的粒内孔、无机矿物粒内孔和黏土矿物粒内孔,有机质孔以及裂缝。凝灰岩储层的物性具有高孔低渗的特点,孔隙度主要分布在10%~25%,空气渗透率主要分布在(0.01~0.5)×10-3 μm2,凝灰岩火山玻璃质的脱玻化作用是导致凝灰岩储层高孔低渗的主要因素,脱玻化形成的粒间孔体积小但数量巨大造成了凝灰岩总孔隙度较高,孔隙喉道半径极小又导致渗透率很低。凝灰岩储层物性主要受原始火山灰的组分以及脱玻化程度的控制,玻屑凝灰岩比晶屑玻屑凝灰岩储层物性好,脱玻化程度越高储层物性越好,而脱玻化程度主要受凝灰岩的埋深(温度)、有机质(有机酸)含量等因素控制。     

黄河拉西瓦水电站坝区花岗岩风化研究

风化作用对于岩体工程地质性能的降低不言而喻。研究探讨重大水电工程岩石风化作用机理对于工程区岩体风化带划分、风化渐进性分析、表征岩体风化特征指标的选择及力学性质参数取值等具有重要意义。文章从风化作用本质、化学元素迁移、风化作用类型等角度,对拉西瓦水电站坝区花岗岩风化作用机理进行了探讨。结合本区气候演化、岩石性质、地形条件等综合分析认为:在浅表河谷范围内,风化形式以岩石胀缩作用和冰劈作用为主,而化学风化作用并不强烈。论文采用量化指标对岩体进行风化带划分,选取的定量指标有平硐纵波速度Vp、钻孔RQD、裂隙间距与单元面积节理数等。在此基础上,利用电站20余a来丰富详实的地质、物探、岩体测试等大量资料,采用定性分析与定量划分相结合的研究方法,对黄河拉西瓦坝基花岗岩体进行风化分带,得出坝基岩体风化带总体空间布局。     

Field-based experimental determination of the weathering rates of the Cappadocian tuffs

Since the last eruption in the Cappadocia region that resulted in the formation of irregular, hard, thick lava layers on top of the Cappadocian tuffs, atmospheric processes have preferentially sculptured the tuffs. The erosion processes have resulted in some beautiful topographical landscape features, the so-called “fairy chimneys”. However, erosion, which is an important factor in the formation of fairy chimneys in the early stages, has a negative effect on their future. Over time, the number of visitors to this region has also increased and, therefore, in addition to natural erosion, the effects of localized erosion resulting from tourism at the site have increased in the last few decades. The physical, mineralogical and mechanical properties of the Cappadocian tuffs have been widely investigated in previous studies, but, their weathering characteristics, particularly weathering rate, were not determined in these studies. Determination of the weathering rate of these rocks is mandatory, especially for conservation projects, which should be urgently applied in order to protect this heritage. In this study, a comprehensive research program was carried out on the weathering properties of the Cappadocian tuffs and the weathering rate was determined in field and laboratory investigations. To this purpose, a detailed field investigation was performed. Besides field observations, the mineralogical, physical and mechanical properties of tuffs were also determined. In addition to durability evaluation by the slake durability index test, wetting–drying and freezing–thawing tests were also performed for weathering rate assessment of the Cappadocian tuffs. In order to account for overburden load on some specific parts of pillars, these wetting–drying and freezing–thawing tests were performed under loads. The results obtained from field observations of old man-made structures and from laboratory studies show that the weathering rate varies between 0.03 and 0.59 mm/year for the Esbelli tuff, and 0.4 and 2.5 mm/year for softer part of the Kavak member.     

Weathering indices for rhyolitic tuff and granite in Hong Kong

A series of chemical analyses and dry density tests of rhyolitic tuff and granitic samples have been carried out. The test results have been interpreted using a newly developed theoretical weathering model for calculating a mobility index of major elements in rock and soil. It is found that this index is useful for describing changes of rock and soil during weathering and classifying the degrees of weathering. Based on the theoretical model, a new parameter called the volume index, which combines chemical and physical data, is suggested. This index appears to be a good indicator for classifying the degree of weathering in Hong Kong. A quantitative classification scheme is suggested.     

Durability assessment of the Ala?at? tuff (Izmir) in western Turkey

Ala?at? tuff has been used extensively as a source of building stone for outdoor and indoor decorations since the historical times in and around the tourist town of Ala?at? (western Turkey). The use of the Alacati tuff in buildings has been made compulsory by the Ala?at? municipality, for preserving the historical appearance of the buildings, after 2005 in Ala?at?. It has been noticed that, evident deteriorations developed in tuff surfaces of the stone buildings and garden walls within 5?C6?years of their emplacement. Durability properties of the Ala?at? tuff are evaluated by determining the mineralogical, chemical, and physico-mechanical properties of the fresh tuff samples obtained from the only operative quarry in the area. Ageing tests such as Na₂SO₄ and MgSO₄ salt crystallization, freezing?Cthawing, and wetting?Cdrying were conducted on the fresh tuff samples to assess their durability. Additionally, the durability of the tuff is also evaluated by determining its average pore diameter, saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry strength ratio, static rock and slake-durability indices. Fresh Ala?at? tuff has high porosity and low unit weight and strengths and are classified to be very poor to moderately durable stone based on the test results of different durability assessment methods. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses have also been carried out on the deteriorated tuff samples collected from the surfaces of the stone buildings to determine the effect of weathering on tuff and the test results have been compared with those of the fresh tuff samples. There is no major difference observed between the mineralogy and chemistry of the fresh and weathered tuff samples thus, it has been concluded that physical weathering has been dominant in the area in deterioration of tuff.     

Lichenic growth as a factor in the physical deterioration or protection of Cappadocian monuments

Cappadocian monuments that are within tuff have serious deterioration problems. Understanding the effects of lichens on the tuffs is of utmost importance. In this paper, interactions between lichen-coated surfaces of Cappadocian monuments and the rock substratum have been studied. Thin sections and freshly cut sections were investigated by light and scanning electron microscopy. The presence of clay minerals and zeolites as weathering by-products produced by alteration and hydrolysis of glass and feldspars was assessed by XRD patterns. Furthermore, some physical properties of the tuff coated by and free of lichens were measured and compared. Analysis of mineralogical data has shown that the main weathering mechanism can be identified as hydrolysis of some of the rock-forming minerals. The lichenic coat reduces the presence of water inside the rock, thus protecting the rock material from physical decay and disintegration.     

The behaviour of consolidated volcanic tuffs: weathering mechanisms under simulated laboratory conditions

Five volcanic tuffs ranging from dacitic tuffs of Hungary to rhyolite, phonolite and basaltic tuffs of Germany were consolidated under laboratory conditions. Prior to consolidation an anti-hygro, a hydrous consolidant, which reduces the swelling ability of clay minerals, was applied. The three consolidants, a silicic acid ester (SAE), an elastic silicic acid ester (eSAE) and an acrylate resin (PMMA) were applied on test specimens under vacuum. Petrographic characterisation (polarizing microscopy, XRD, SEM) provided data for fabric analyses and the mineral composition of the tuffs. Changes in fabric, effective porosity, density, tensile strength, ultrasonic wave velocity were evaluated after the treatment. Weathering simulation tests such as hygric dilatation and thermal dilatation aimed to prove the effectiveness of consolidation and the durability of consolidated tuff samples. More than 500 samples were analysed. The tests showed that SAE caused the highest increase in indirect tensile strength. The water absorption and the pore size distribution of the tuffs were modified by consolidation. The PMMA reduced the water absorption the most, whereas SAE modified it the least. All the tested consolidants increased the thermal dilatation of the tuffs. The changes in hygric dilatation were not uniform: for most tuffs SAE increased and PMMA decreased the hygric dilatation, although the clay-rich Habichtswald tuff showed the opposite trend. The changes in hygric and thermal behaviour of consolidated tuff require special care when specific consolidants are chosen. These products modify the physical properties of consolidated tuffs and change the behaviour of weathering.     

Sedimentology of subaqueous volcaniclastic sediment gravity flows in the Neogene Santa Maria Basin, California

Subaqueous tuff deposits within the lower Miocene Lospe Formation of the Santa Maria Basin, California, are up to 20 m thick and were deposited by high density turbidity flows after large volumes of ash were supplied to the basin and remobilized. Tuff units in the Lospe Formation include a lower lithofacies assemblage of planar bedded tuff that grades upward into massive tuff, which in turn is overlain by an upper lithofacies assemblage of alternating thin bedded, coarse grained tuff beds and tuffaceous mudstone. The planar bedded tuff ranges from 0.3 to 3 m thick and contains 1-8 cm thick beds that exhibit inverse grading, and low angle and planar laminations. The overlying massive tuff ranges from 1 to 10 m thick and includes large intraclasts of pumiceous tuff and stringers of pumice grains aligned parallel to bedding. The upper lithofacies assemblage of thin bedded tuff ranges from 0.4 to 3 m thick; individual beds are 6-30 cm thick and display planar laminae and dewatering structures. Pumice is generally concentrated in the upper halves of beds in the thin bedded tuff interval. The association of sedimentary structures combined with semi-quantitative analysis for dispersive and hydraulic equivalence of bubble-wall vitric shards and pumice grains reveals that particles in the planar bedded lithofacies are in dispersive, not settling, equivalence. This suggests deposition under dispersive pressures in a tractive flow. Grains in the overlying massive tuff are more closely in settling equivalence as opposed to dispersive equivalence, which suggests rapid deposition from a suspended sediment load. The set of lithofacies that comprises the lower lithofacies assemblage of each of the Lospe Formation tuff units is analogous to those of traction carpets and subsequent suspension sedimentation deposits often attributed to high density turbidity flows. Grain distributions in the upper thin bedded lithofacies do not reveal a clear relation for dispersive or settling equivalence. This information, together with the association of sedimentary features in the thin bedded lithofacies, including dewatering structures, suggests a combination of tractive and liquefied flows. Absence of evidence for elevated emplacement temperatures (e.g. eutaxitic texture or shattered crystàls) suggests emplacement of the Lospe Formation tuff deposits in a cold state closely following pyroclastic eruptions. The tuff deposits are not only a result of primary volcanic processes which supplied the detritus, but also of processes which involved remobilization of unconsolidated ash as subaqueous sediment gravity flows. These deposits provide an opportunity to study the sedimentation processes that may occur during subaqueous volcaniclastic flows and demonstrate similarities with existing models for sediment gravity flow processes.     

The Hianana Volcanics: Remnants of a Late Permian tuff ring and lava flow,Coombadjha Volcanic Complex,northeastern New South Wales

The Hianana Volcanics consist of bedded tuff and dacitic lava that form a locally mappable unit within the extensive, Late Permian silicic volcanic sequence of northeastern New South Wales. Principal components of the bedded tuff are crystal and volcanic lithic fragments ranging from coarse ash to lapilli, accompanied by variable amounts of fine ash matrix. Well denned plane parallel thin bedding is characteristic. Sandwave bed forms, including low‐angle cross‐beds and wavy beds, are confined to an area of 2–3 km² coinciding with the thickest sections (70 m) of bedded tuff. A high‐aspect ratio flow of porphyritic dacitic lava overlies the bedded tuff in the same area. The setting, lithofacies, extent and geometry of the bedded tuffs of the Hianana Volcanics are comparable with modern tuff rings which are composed of the deposits from base surges generated by explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions at primary volcanic vents. Many of these have also discharged lava late in their activity. Proximal parts of the Hianana tuff ring were buried by the porphyritic lava after the phreatomagmatic eruptions had ceased. In more distal sections, the bedded tuff is less than 10 m thick and dominantly comprises fine grained, plane parallel, very thin beds and laminae; these features suggest an origin by fallout from ash clouds that accompanied the phreatomagmatic eruptions. The distal ash was covered and preserved from erosion by a layer of welded ignimbrite, the source of which is unknown.     

米仓山构造带下寒武统筇竹寺组砂岩球状风化特征及成因机制

球状风化发育类型广泛,并且与人们的生产生活息息相关,但是人们对球状风化的研究却相对较少.为进一步研究其发育特征和形成机制,笔者通过薄片鉴定、扫描电镜、X-射线衍射、主量及微量元素分析等实验手段对米仓山构造带下寒武统筇竹寺组砂岩球状风化发育特征及成因机制开展了系统研究.研究表明,米仓山构造带下寒武统筇竹寺组砂岩的球状风化...     

江西龙南花岗岩稀土风化壳中粘土矿物的研究

本区燕山早期花岗岩发育的风化壳中的粘土矿物以高岭石和埃洛石(7Å)为主;蒙脱石、三水铝石及其它为新查明矿物。据粘土矿物组合特征,自风化剖面深部到地表分为三个带:含蒙脱石带,高岭石和埃洛石(7Å)带,含三水铝石带。本文探讨了矿物在风化过程中的生成演化顺序,并进行了热力学的解释。据各带粘土物质的阳离子交换量与稀土含量变化的不一致关系认为,稀土在C带中的富集是化学风化的结果,与粘土矿物组合无关。     

Chemical weathering and Rb-Sr whole rock ages

Weathered whole rock samples of five lithic units from Maine, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina were analyzed to evaluate the effect of chemical weathering on the Rb-Sr ages of the original rocks. Major element and turbidity analyses, as well as standard X-ray diffraction and petrographic studies were made on selected samples. All weathered granitic rocks are friable; several are almost saprolites. Volcanic rocks are powdery or are pitted as a result of the weathering of plagioclase phenocrysts. The weathering profiles studied all are young relative to the age of the unaltered rock. Considering the extent of weathering, however, ages of the weathered samples are remarkably close to the published ages for unaltered samples of the same units. Weathered samples have ages ranging from essentially the same as fresh samples to no more than 20% younger than the age obtained from the fresh samples. In one profile, we have attempted to quantify the extent of weathering: there is a positive correlation between our measure of the degree of weathering and per cent ‘lowering’ of the age. Weathering of plagioclase apparently has little effect on whole rock ages; ages are lowered significantly only where biotite and K-feldspar have undergone considerable alteration.     

云南滇池地区风化磷块岩的风化指标研究

长期风化作用使云南滇池地区形成了大面积的风化磷块岩矿石,这种矿石是制取高效磷肥的优质原料。为了圈定这些风化磷块岩矿石,须确定适宜的风化指标。笔者通过风化磷块岩形成过程化学组分变化研究,首次提出将风化指标分为“直接法”和“间接法”两类,进而提出ＣＯ２风化指标为直接法中指标,２Ｐ２Ｏ５＋Ａ．Ｉ＾１）风化指标为间接法中推荐指标。     

香港花岗岩风化分级化学指标体系与风化壳分带

火成岩的化学风化过程实质上就是碱、碱土金属组分水解淋失与脱硅富铁铝化的地球化学过程。不同风化程度的岩石处于整个化学风化过程的不同阶段,因而具有不同的化学成分和风化度指标。笔者在对香港九龙两个地方5个钻孔共计150件不同深度、不同风化程度的样品化学全分析结果与岩土风化程度宏观判别结果的相互对比、选择和确认的基础上,建立了香港地区花岗岩风化岩土风化程度工程分级的化学指标体系。这一研究成果的提出不仅有利于提高花岗岩风化岩土工程分类的科。学性、可靠性和实用性,而且可以为风化岩土工程特性与风化作用关系研究提供理论依据。     

Engineering geologic factors in the design of a large underground structure in a tuff sequence in Cappadocia

The Cappadocia region of Inner Anatolia has produced very distinct cultures since the Bronze Age (6500 BC). The settlers were accustomed to hew their house in massive to thickly-bedded tuffs. A thick succession of lapillistone, welded tuff, silicified tuff, clayey tuff, agglomerate, and lava flows constitutes the majority of the Late Tertiary-Quaternary-aged volcanic units of this region. Most of the historical structures hewn into the thick to massive layers have preserved their original integrity; whereas most of the structures carved into a medium- to thinly-bedded sequence have failed. Bedding planes are the primary discontinuity type in the region, and must be accommodated in geotechnical designs. Joints and normal faults present the second prominent discontinuity types, which are very widely spaced. Bedding planes beyond the structural influence of major fault zones dip around 10°, due to syndepositional deformation during regional uplift. In addition to the thickness of layers, the engineering characteristics of the persistent discontinuities have a great influence on the orientation and dimension of au underground cavern in Cappadocia.

Construction of this cavern, the International Underground Congress Hall, commenced in January 1993 in Cappadocia, south of the town Avanos. The initially proposed location and orientation of the structure were completely changed and readjusted according to the geotechnical model prepared in September 1993. The geotechnical re-design of the structure was then accomplished through a series of numerical analyses carried out using a Boundary Element technique. The structure in the former proposal was found susceptible to kinematic collapse of joint-bounded rock blocks, possible breakup of thinly bedded and very weakly cemented tuff layers, and quick erosion by groundwater flowing along persistent discontinuities. Moreover, groundwater percolating along discontinuities requires sophisticated engineering measures to maintain stability wherever cleft-water pressure builds up.     

The supergene thorium and rare-earth element deposit at Morro do Ferro, Poços de Caldas, Minas Gerais, Brazil

The thorium and rare-earth element (Th-REE) deposit at Morro do Ferro formed under supergene lateritic weathering conditions. The ore body consists of shallow NW-SE elongated argillaceous lenses that extend from the top of the hill downwards along its south-eastern slope. The deposit is capped by a network of magnetite layers which protected the underlying highly weathered, argillaceous host rock from excessive erosion. The surrounding country rocks comprise a sequence of subvolcanic phonolite intrusions that have been strongly altered by hydrothermal and supergene processes.From petrological, mineralogical and geochemical studies, and mass balance calculations, it is inferred that the highly weathered host rock was originally carbonatitic in composition, initially enriched in Th and REEs compared to the surrounding silicate rocks. The intrusion of the carbonatite caused fenitic alteration in the surrounding phonolites, consisting of early potassic alteration followed by a vein-type Th-REE mineralization with associated fluorite, carbonate, pyrite and zircon. Subsequent weathering has completely decomposed the carbonatite forming a residual supergene enrichment of Th and REEs.Initial weathering of the carbonatite has created a chemical environment that might have been conductive to carbonate and phosphate complexing of the REEs in groundwaters. This may have appreciably restricted the dissolution of primary REE phases. Strongly oxidic weathering has resulted in a fractionation between Ce and the other light rare earth elements (LREEs). Ce³⁺ is oxidized to Ce⁴⁺ and retained together with Th by secondary mineral formation (cerianite, thorianite), and by adsorption on poorly crystalline iron- and aluminium-hydroxides. In contrast, the trivalent LREEs are retained to a lesser degree and are thus more available for secondary mineral formation (Nd-lanthanite) and adsorption at greater depths down the weathering column. Seasonally controlled fluctuations of recharge waters into the weathering column may help to explain the observed repetition of Th-Ce enriched zones underlain by trivalent LREE enriched zones.