The problem of historicity in physical geography

Historicity forms for logic the direct antithesis of regularity. In recognition of this dialectical premise physical geography has attempted to remove the historical contingent element of its phenomena in order to emphasise the regularity, and by so doing legimitise its status as a scientific discipline. This has resulted in a schism between empirical knowledge and the accepted theoretical structures. The regularity of geodynamic processes is apparent only on the basis of contingent clusters that in their essential characteristics are subject to historical change. Analysis becomes therefore a question of attribution, reconstructing individual clusters of causal determinants, each cluster being described as an individual outcome rather than the embodiment of necessary laws. The concept of the historical within geography must be clearly separated from the pseudo-historical development concept, as employed in relation to the theory of deterministic chaos. The scientific methodological problem, present in geography because of the incongruence between the logical assessment and the empirical subject matter, is here considered as the basis for the application of the evolutionary epistomological theory which not only recognises this incongruence but also clarifies and makes explicable its origin.The authors gratefully acknowledge the translation of this paper rendered by Prof. Dr. E. M. Yates, King's College, London.     

Soviet physical and biological geography

Soviet physical and biological geography was built initially on solid Russian traditions. Its development since the Revolution, however, has been strongly influenced by planning needs for information and data about physical environment and natural resources and more recently by rising concern for the quality of environment. New methods of data collection, monitoring and analysis have been introduced to enrich and to complement traditional approaches.     

Subject of study in complex physical geography (Landscape geography)

Complex physical geography (landscape geography) is a science of the structure of the natural environment treated as a whole composed of interconnected and interacting components. The research object of complex physical geography is the Earth's surface understood as a three-dimensional layer including lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere as well as the biosphere which develops within the former three. Among different terms employed to define the external cover of the earth the best one seems to be epigeosphere (A.G. Isachenko 1965). Landscape as a scientific term is ambiguous and can be well replaced with the term geocomplex. Geocomplex is a relatively closed sector of nature which constitutes a whole due to the processes occuring within it and interdependences of geocomponents of which it is composed (H. Barsch 1968). There are homogeneous (topological) and heterogeneous (chorological) geocomplexes. Every geocomplex is characterized by its structure and manner of functioning. The objective existence of geocomplexes cannot be doubted.     

The lithosphere-asthenosphere system in Fennoscandia

We present a summary of the available information on Rayleigh-wave dispersion data for the Fennoscandian region. The observations have been combined to produce regional dispersion relations which have then been subjected to the “hedgehog” inversion procedure. The results are presented on a map outlining the thickness of the lid and the shear velocities in both the lid and the asthenosphere channel. Lid thickness up to around 135 km is found in the Bothnia-north-central Finland area with, if any, weak shear velocity contrast to the underlying layer. The surrounding areas are characterized by lid thickness up to around 75 km; a stronger low-velocity zone to lid contrast may be found in the Caledonian and Baltic Sea area (0.25÷0.45 km/s). Taking into account Moho depth data and the aforementioned results, a map of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system was derived.     

On the role of evidence in physical and human geography

While physical geographers are united in a commitment to the scientific method with its emphasis on quantitative evidence, human geographers face a dilemma in deciding whether to adopt a scientific or humanistic approach in their research. The scientific approach offers a more secure, objective knowledge, but limits the scholar to a relatively narrow range of topics. The humanistic approach allows the scholar to explore a wide range of human experiences, but it lacks rigorous procedures of objective verification. The difficulty of the application of theoretical ideas to human societies can, to some extent, be avoided by adopting an historical approach, with an emphasis on the empirical investigation of human activity as a reflection of ideas. As long as human geographers have a commitment to basing their interpretations of geographical phenomena on objective evidence the possibility of a profitable co-operation exists among proponents of different philosophical approaches. A unified human geography embracing scholars of diverse views depends for its success on the identification of geographical problems that transcend philosophical and theoretical points of view.     

The Influence of American geography on Korean geography

Korean modern geography emerged from the dark age of unfortunate Japanese colonial rule after liberation in 1945, and has grown rapidly since the 1960s. Modern geographical theories and methodologies were introduced to Korea by the Korean geographers who received PhD degrees in the United States and returned home to teach at universities in Korea, especially in the 1970s and early 1980s. American geography has influenced the progress of the modern geography in Korea in various ways — education systems, curricula for college students, training graduate students — and research methodologies in Korean geography during the last half-century have been directly and indirectly influenced by American geography. The influence has had, however, both positive and negative effects in the development of Korean geography. There is a tendency in recent years to reinterpret Western theories and concepts in the Korean context, considering distinctive regional and cultural characteristics.     

The future of geography

This paper is an attempt to assess the current state and future prospects of Geography especially but not only in Britain. It is quasi-polemical and should be read in that spirit. The paper looks first at the notable successes of physical and human geography. It then considers how these successes are being buttressed by current events taking place in the world. Next, the paper considers the main problems that beset geography. Finally, however, the paper ends on another positive note by considering some of the exciting new developments that are now taking place in the discipline which will allow it to relate to more of the many worlds that make up geography's vocation.     

Archean of Greenland and Fennoscandia

The North Atlantic craton in southern West Greenland mainly consists of a tectonic collage of Mesoarchean continental crustal terranes, which were amalgamated at c. 2.7 Ga and are currently exposed at mid-crustal amphibolite to granulite facies levels. Tonalitic orthogneisses predominate, intercalated with slightly older tholeiitic to andesitic metavolcanic rocks and associated gabbro-anorthosite intrusive complexes. The North Atlantic craton also contains enclaves of Eoarchean, c. 3.86-3.6 Ga orthogneisses and supracrustal rocks including the Isua greenstone （or supracrustal） belt. This is the oldest known assemblage of rocks deposited at the surface of the Earth, comprising mafic pillow lavas, banded iron formations and metasedimentary schists with local disseminated graphite of possible biogenic origin. Eoarchean rocks have not been found in Kola and Karelia in Fennoscandia where most rocks are 2.9-2.7 Ga tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic orthogneisses with intercalated coeval greenstone belts and amphibolites. Mesoarchean 3.0-3.2 Ga rocks are found in the eastern and western parts of the Karelian province. Subduction-related rocks like the Iringora supra-subduction type ophiolite and basalt-andesite-dacite-rhyolite series volcanic rocks in many greenstone belts, as well as eclogites are found in the Archean of Fennoscandia. A clear distinction between Greenland and Fennoscandia is the abundance of 2.75-2.65 Ga igneous rocks in Fennoscandia which indicates that these two cratons had a separate evolution during the Neoarchean.     

Beyond geography: The geography of the beyond in ancient Japan

This paper is a review of the literature on the world-view of the ancient cosmography of Japan. It explores the structure of cosmographical space as it was conceived, through archaeological evidence, historical written records and comparative study of primitive religion. It then goes on to examine in some detail the landscape of that world-view, which reflected the actual physiography of Japan, only in mirror-image. It is argued that several aspects of the ancient world-view continue to influence not only some Japanese customs, but also play an underestimated role in determining some important aspects of land use in modern Japan, particularly that associated with mountains and Shint shrines.     

The Nigerian school of geography

Hitherto, the Nigerian Geographical thought has been, in the main, partly expressed in innaugural lectures, Nigerian Geographical Association Presidential Addresses and topical discussions in journals. Hence, there is no cohesive articulation of its ideas, concepts, orientation and methodology in a single publication. This paper is a review of the development and philosophy of geography in Nigeria. It is presented in a concised form.     

Paleoproterozoic evolution of Fennoscandia and Greenland

The Paleoproterozoic evolution of Fennoscandia and Greenland can be divided into major rifting and orogenic stages. The Paleoproterozoic rifting of Fennoscandia started with 2.505-2.1 Ga, multiphase, southwest-prograding, intraplate rifting. Both Fennoscandia and Greenland experienced 2.1- 2.04 Ga drifting and separation of their Archean cratons by newly-formed oceans. The main Paleoproterozoic orogenic evolution of Fennoscandia resulted in the Lapland-Kola orogen （1.94-1.86 Ga） and the composite Svecofennian orogen （1.92-1.79 Ga）. The Paleoproterozoic orogens in Greenland, from north to south, are the lnglefield mobile belt （1.95-1.92 Ga）, the Rinkian .fold belt/Nagssugtoqidian orogen （1.88-1.83 Ga） and the Ketilidian orogen （c. 1.8 Ga）. The Lapland-Kola orogen, Inglefield mobile belt and the Rinkian fold belt/Nagssugtoqidian orogen are continent-continent collision zones with limited formation of new Paleoproterozoic crust, whereas the Ketilidian orogen displays a convergent plate-tectonic system, without subsequent collision. The composite Svecofennian orogen is responsible for the main Paleoproterozoic crustal growth of Fennoscandia.     

The present rate of uplift of Fennoscandia implies a low-viscosity asthenosphere

The rate of displacement in Fennoscandia has been intensively discussed for many years. It is now widely accepted to be an isostatic response of the glacial history of the area. The Earth's present response to deglaciation in Fennoscandia is simulated using a three-dimensional (3D), viscoelastic model in which the asthenosphere and mantle viscosity are allowed to vary so that the maximum rate of present uplift matches its observed value. The deglaciation history is considered to be known, and the C¹⁴-datings are converted to sidereal years. The pattern of the present uplift gives a firm match with the observed data when a low-viscosity asthenosphere is introduced. Assuming a 15,000 years load cycle, i.e. the glacier was applied to the surface for 15,000 years before the melting started, the best fitting earth viscosity model is a 10²⁴ Nm lithosphere overlying a 75 km-thick 2.0 × 10¹⁹ Pas asthenosphere and a 1.2 × 10²¹ Pas mantle. The simulations suggest a remaining maximum uplift of 40 m.     

The deglaciation history of eastern Fennoscandia - recent data from Finland

Recent stratigraphical, morphological, and radiocarbon data indicate that most of eastern Finland north of North Karelia was deglaciated in early Flandrian times between about 9500 and 9000 B.P. The Younger Dryas ice margin, represented by the Salpausselka ridges in southern Finland, continued through the North Karelian end-moraines across the eastern border of the country. In Soviet Karelia it is possibly represented by the so-called East Karelian end-moraines known from earlier studies.     

The Nordkalott Project: studies of Quaternary geology in northern Fennoscandia

The Quaternary geology of the Nordkalott area in northern Fennoscandia is depicted in five maps. The themes of the maps are: Quaternary deposits, glacial geomorphology and paleohydrography, ice-flow indicators, Quaternary stratigraphy and ice-flow directions. The maps are briefly presented and an outline of the glacial history of the Nordkalott area is given.