Field-based experimental determination of the weathering rates of the Cappadocian tuffs

Since the last eruption in the Cappadocia region that resulted in the formation of irregular, hard, thick lava layers on top of the Cappadocian tuffs, atmospheric processes have preferentially sculptured the tuffs. The erosion processes have resulted in some beautiful topographical landscape features, the so-called “fairy chimneys”. However, erosion, which is an important factor in the formation of fairy chimneys in the early stages, has a negative effect on their future. Over time, the number of visitors to this region has also increased and, therefore, in addition to natural erosion, the effects of localized erosion resulting from tourism at the site have increased in the last few decades. The physical, mineralogical and mechanical properties of the Cappadocian tuffs have been widely investigated in previous studies, but, their weathering characteristics, particularly weathering rate, were not determined in these studies. Determination of the weathering rate of these rocks is mandatory, especially for conservation projects, which should be urgently applied in order to protect this heritage. In this study, a comprehensive research program was carried out on the weathering properties of the Cappadocian tuffs and the weathering rate was determined in field and laboratory investigations. To this purpose, a detailed field investigation was performed. Besides field observations, the mineralogical, physical and mechanical properties of tuffs were also determined. In addition to durability evaluation by the slake durability index test, wetting–drying and freezing–thawing tests were also performed for weathering rate assessment of the Cappadocian tuffs. In order to account for overburden load on some specific parts of pillars, these wetting–drying and freezing–thawing tests were performed under loads. The results obtained from field observations of old man-made structures and from laboratory studies show that the weathering rate varies between 0.03 and 0.59 mm/year for the Esbelli tuff, and 0.4 and 2.5 mm/year for softer part of the Kavak member.     

Assessment of environmental and engineering geological problems for the possible re-use of an abandoned rock-hewn settlement in Urgüp (Cappadocia), Turkey

The Cappadocia Region of Central Anatolia having a very distinct culture is one of the attractive touristic sites of Turkey due to its spectacular and unique landforms and historical heritages. In this region, the structures carved into thick to massive tuffs survived and kept their original integrity for a number of centuries. Environmental and anthropological factors at the Cappadocia Region have been the main reasons for extensive subsurface and multi-purpose use in the past and present. In addition, thermal insulation properties of the tuffs make these rocks suitable for use in underground openings. The Kayakapi Neighborhood, located in the town of Urgüp, is one of the famous historical sites. This site is situated within the “Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia” which was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1985. In order to develop the tourism potential of this abandoned site while preserving its cultural and natural values, a natural environmental conservation and revitalization project was initiated. As an integral part of this project, in this study, environmental and engineering geological problems, including rock fall potential and stability of about 1,200 rock-hewn structures, were investigated and an inventory was prepared for the possible re-use of the underground openings and other structures at the site, and remedial measures were recommended. The assessments based on observations and experimental studies indicated that the tuffs do not show significant changes both perpendicular and parallel to layering, and discontinuities and rock weathering seem to be more important factors controlling the stability of rock-hewn structures. The major stability problems threatening the re-use of the openings are structurally-controlled block instabilities, overbreaks, and erosion and shearing of the pillars made of tuff. On the other hand, the area at the entrance of the site requires some protection measures such as the construction of a retaining wall, systematic bolting of rock slabs and removal of some blocks having rock fall potential. The inventory for the openings suggests that there are a number of openings that can be re-used after necessary remedial measures.     

Geomechanical Evaluation of Derinkuyu Antique Underground City and its Implications in Geoengineering

Derinkuyu Underground City, located in the Cappadocia Region of Turkey, is an important structure not only for its antique and archaeological characteristics, but also as a structure in terms of the long-term stability of underground rock structures excavated by mankind. The authors carried out some observational, experimental and theoretical rock mechanics studies in the region from 1996 in the context of a research project supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan for the assessment of the long-term behaviour of Derinkuyu Underground City, and these studies are still continuing. In addition to the monitoring of the environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture and air pressure, they also installed acoustic emission (AE) and electrical potential (EP) measurement systems to monitor the behaviour and response of the surrounding rock at the fifth and seventh floors of the underground city. In this article, the geology, seismicity and state of stress of the Cappadocia Region, climatic conditions in the underground city and its vicinity, short- and long-term behaviours of the surrounding rock, its index and mechanical properties, and effects of water content and freezing–thawing processes were investigated. The stability of Derinkuyu Underground City was also evaluated using theoretical and numerical methods, and the results were presented. Furthermore, its implications in modern geoengineering are also discussed.     

Engineering geologic factors in the design of a large underground structure in a tuff sequence in Cappadocia

The Cappadocia region of Inner Anatolia has produced very distinct cultures since the Bronze Age (6500 BC). The settlers were accustomed to hew their house in massive to thickly-bedded tuffs. A thick succession of lapillistone, welded tuff, silicified tuff, clayey tuff, agglomerate, and lava flows constitutes the majority of the Late Tertiary-Quaternary-aged volcanic units of this region. Most of the historical structures hewn into the thick to massive layers have preserved their original integrity; whereas most of the structures carved into a medium- to thinly-bedded sequence have failed. Bedding planes are the primary discontinuity type in the region, and must be accommodated in geotechnical designs. Joints and normal faults present the second prominent discontinuity types, which are very widely spaced. Bedding planes beyond the structural influence of major fault zones dip around 10°, due to syndepositional deformation during regional uplift. In addition to the thickness of layers, the engineering characteristics of the persistent discontinuities have a great influence on the orientation and dimension of au underground cavern in Cappadocia.

Construction of this cavern, the International Underground Congress Hall, commenced in January 1993 in Cappadocia, south of the town Avanos. The initially proposed location and orientation of the structure were completely changed and readjusted according to the geotechnical model prepared in September 1993. The geotechnical re-design of the structure was then accomplished through a series of numerical analyses carried out using a Boundary Element technique. The structure in the former proposal was found susceptible to kinematic collapse of joint-bounded rock blocks, possible breakup of thinly bedded and very weakly cemented tuff layers, and quick erosion by groundwater flowing along persistent discontinuities. Moreover, groundwater percolating along discontinuities requires sophisticated engineering measures to maintain stability wherever cleft-water pressure builds up.     

Stability Assessment of Avanos Underground Congress Centre (Cappadocia, Turkey) in Soft Tuffs Through an Integrated Scheme of Rock Engineering Methods

The Cappadocia Region is one of the seven sites in Turkey included in the World Heritage List in 1985 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and includes structures carved into thick and soft tuffs that have survived and kept their integrity for a number of centuries. Besides existing ancient structures, new underground constructions have been undertaken. Considering the historical characteristics of the region, the construction of an underground structure was planned by the Municipality of Avanos Town to utilize a hill remnant from an abandoned quarry as an underground congress centre in the 1980s, but its construction has not yet been completed due to financial problems. In this study, integrated experimental, analytical and numerical analyses and an in situ monitoring program were undertaken to assess the stability conditions of the congress centre, which was carved into a soft tuff susceptible to long-term degradation processes. The experimental results indicate that the surrounding rock is quite vulnerable to cyclic freezing–thawing and wetting–drying processes. The strength of the rock is drastically reduced under saturated conditions, and the processes of freezing and thawing further accelerate the rock degradation under such conditions. Simple short-term stability analyses clearly show that some tensile cracking may take place and that the opening may suffer from some cracking problems 28–30 years after excavation. The analyses carried out for the long-term safety of the structure indicate that the most critical condition exists for the widest opening and that some supports at the middle of the widest opening may be necessary. Nevertheless, further studies on the long-term characteristics of this tuff are necessary to check this conclusion. The in situ monitoring clearly showed that some further crack propagation will occur, especially after rainy and freezing–thawing periods.     

Effect of salt crystallization on weathering of pyroclastic rocks from Cappadocia,Turkey

Salt crystallization is the most significant factor in the degradation of the natural stones used in cultural and historical structures. Stones decay partially or fully as a result of this exposure. This study is the investigation of the degradation of historical monuments (underground cities and semi-underground settlements) carved in pyroclastic rocks in Cappadocian Region which takes part in World Cultural Heritage List. Samples of pyroclastic rocks were collected from six different quarries in Cappadocia, Turkey. To understand the contribution of salt crystallization to this weathering, dry weight loss (DWL) tests were performed on these samples. To investigate the correlations between salt crystallization and other rock properties, porosity, water absorption, ultrasonic velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian tensile strength, and point load index were also measured. During the SC process of weathering, the results showed that porosity and water absorption increased for all the samples whereas ultrasonic velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, and point load index values decreased. Evaluation of the data obtained from these tests showed very high logarithmic correlations between the dry weight loss values and the mechanical properties.     

Three Zones and Support Technique for Large Section Incline Shaft Crossing Goaf

Aiming at the construction and control problems of fractured rock mass when large section inclined shaft through goaf in this paper, and with the new digging belt conveyer incline shaft at No. 6 mine of Pingdingshan as the study subject, three zones of overlying strata in goaf and stability control of surrounding rock in incline shaft was studied. According to the actual mining situation and the engineering geological conditions, the methods of empirical formula and field tracking were used to determine the height of three zones of overlying strata and the length corresponding to the new digging belt conveyer incline shaft. At the same time, the mechanical characteristics of surrounding rock in caving zone analyzed by laboratory experiment. And the compacted conditions of rock strata in goaf with the Ding_5–6 coal seam was obtained through the field, so that “rigid U steel arch+ pouring concrete” supporting scheme was put forward. In addition, the mechanics principle of U steel inverted arch was analyzed by mechanical theory, which finally determined the concrete support parameters and construction scheme for surrounding rock of incline shaft in caving zone. Through field practice and late monitoring, the result shown that the stability of surrounding rock was well controlled, and surrounding rock began to stabilize and its deformation rate was less than 1 mm/d in the stable stage of monitoring.     

节理岩体中双向八车道小净距隧道施工方案优化分析

结合福州国际机场高速公路2期工程魁岐2号双洞八车道特大断面小净距隧道工程,建立了离散元数值模拟分析模型,针对节理岩体中特大断面小净距隧道施工方案进行了优化分析。分别研究了双侧壁导坑法、CRD法和CD法3种施工方案下隧道拱顶下沉、中间岩柱水平位移、围岩水平位移和围岩塑性区的变化规律。基于研究成果,并结合魁岐2号特大断面小净距隧道现场实际情况,在该隧道进口Ⅴ级围岩段,将双侧壁导坑法变更为CRD法,顺利完成了施工,此施工方案的变更对降低施工成本、加快施工进度、缩短施工工期均起到了较好的作用。研究结果可为类似条件下特大断面小净距隧道的设计、施工提供借鉴与参考。     

江西龙虎山地区红层沉积相分析及与丹霞地貌发育关系研究——以仙人城景区为例

江西龙虎山地区以发育老年期丹霞地貌为特色,其成景地层为晚白垩世河口组红层,目前对这套红层的沉积相认识程度还比较低。龙虎山仙人城景区河口组出露厚度达百余米,沉积构造发育,且人工开凿的台阶可以直达山顶,这为沉积相分析提供了便利条件。根据野外露头岩性组成、沉积构造等特点,识别出6种岩相单元:无沉积构造砾岩、正粒序层理砾岩、逆粒序层理砾岩、平行层理砾岩、含砾砂岩、古土壤。砾石统计结果表明,砾石粒径范围主要为3~4 cm,最大可达12.5 cm,成分以紫红色凝灰岩为主,砂岩、花岗岩和石英次之、变质岩（主要是片岩）较少,磨圆度主要为次棱角状,其次为棱角状。在显微镜下,砂岩碎屑颗粒主要呈棱角-次棱角状,分选性较差,粒径为0.05~2.00 mm,主要由石英、长石和岩屑组成,总体具有结构和成分成熟度中等偏低的特点。野外露头宏观和室内显微分析结果表明,仙人城丹霞地貌的成景地层为河流主导的冲积扇沉积体系的产物。在龙虎山地区,丹霞地貌的空间分布与盆地冲积扇沉积相的平面展布具有较好的一致性,盆地边缘冲积扇成因的厚层砾岩为后期丹霞地貌的形成和演化提供了物质基础。      

金川矿区深部巷道开挖损伤数值模拟研究

在地下深处开挖巷道会诱发应力的急剧调整,无疑会使围岩产生不同程度的损伤。开挖的动态作用虽然持续时间较短,但造成的损伤为后续时效变形和工程扰动影响下的失稳破坏提供了基础条件。为了能够得到开挖作用引起的金川矿区深部巷道损伤区演化规律,从而对巷道损伤破坏进行针对性的防治,本文基于矿区的实际巷道埋深和岩体结构种类,采用等效开挖模拟方法和非均质模型进行了巷道开挖损伤问题的数值模拟研究。模拟结果揭示了在不同水平和岩体结构条件组合情况下开挖损伤区的演化过程和规律。根据研究区巷道的损伤破坏规律,本文提出了深部巷道开挖损伤演化的5种模式,并揭示了各种模式的诱发条件、表现特征、力学机制及发展趋势。相关认识和结论期望为理论和工程实践提供一定的借鉴和参考。     

基于量化GSI系统的破碎岩体应变软化行为研究

松软破碎岩体的复杂力学特性给深部开采工程带来一系列棘手的问题,深入研究破碎岩体峰后力学行为,对于深部巷道围岩稳定性分析及支护结构设计具有重要意义。基于量化GSI围岩评级系统及连续介质理论,建立了考虑围压影响的破碎岩体峰后应变软化力学模型。通过工程应用实例验证了数值模型的可靠性。研究结果表明：通过计算围岩与支护结构相互作用关系可知,理想弹塑性模型和应变软化模型所得计算结果差异较大,采用理想弹塑性模型进行支护设计,可能导致支护结构的安全性偏低,甚至失稳。现场应用结果表明：数值计算结果与现场实际情况吻合;提出的深部破碎岩体应变软化模型能够较为真实地反映破碎岩体的非线性破坏行为,可为硐室围岩稳定性分析及支护结构设计等提供新的思路。     

深埋大理岩力学特性对岩爆发生条件的影响分析

岩爆作为深埋地下工程围岩的一种破坏方式,其发生条件受多种因素的制约。根据在锦屏二级深埋隧洞掘进过程中的岩爆统计结果,即使应力条件和岩体强度达到一定的要求,岩爆发生与否以及剧烈程度还与岩体力学特性有密切的联系。锦屏二级深埋隧洞沿线以大理岩为主,为此开展了大理岩力学特性与岩爆发生关系的相关研究工作。根据大理岩三轴压缩试验结果,验证了大理岩的脆-延-塑转化特性,确定了锦屏白山组大理岩的转化围压和相关的Hoek-Brown强度参数,并利用经验的方法初步评价了锦屏深埋大理岩的岩爆风险。为了进一步明确岩体力学特性对岩爆风险的影响,利用现场实际的岩爆破坏形态,通过考察不同深度处测点的应力路径,校核了现场岩体的力学参数。在此基础上分析了具有岩爆风险的围岩力学状态,分别研究了岩石强度、岩体完整性和岩体脆性特征对岩爆发生条件的影响。研究结果表明,锦屏大理岩岩石强度和脆性特征可以影响到锦屏深埋隧洞围岩岩爆风险程度,但其影响相对较小,而岩体完整性对岩爆风险形成具有比较明显的影响。     

单轴压缩条件下岩溶化裂隙岩体损伤破坏特征研究

岩溶化裂隙岩体是普遍发育于自然界中具有初始损伤的岩体。为了研究岩溶化裂隙岩体损伤破坏特征,本文以贵州某地赋存的溶蚀岩体为研究对象,运用损伤力学理论构建岩溶化裂隙岩体在单轴压缩条件下的损伤演化模型,并建立岩溶化裂隙岩体损伤演化方程。采用颗粒流数值软件进行单轴压缩数值试验,进一步研究岩溶化裂隙岩体试件在单轴压缩条件下的损伤演化特征,分析岩溶化裂隙岩体的微观损伤特征。结果表明：岩溶化裂隙岩体的初始损伤主要包括溶蚀损伤和裂隙损伤。岩溶化裂隙岩体的初始损伤随着溶蚀率的增加而增加,最终增加速率趋于平缓;岩溶化裂隙岩体的损伤演化曲线均呈“S”型变化,先缓慢增加,再迅速增加,最后缓慢增加至损伤值1;岩溶化裂隙岩体存在异构特征,导致破坏裂隙起源于具有初始损伤的溶蚀孔洞和裂隙处,随后裂隙经历萌发、扩张和剪切作用、数量和长度增加以及裂隙贯通4个阶段后发生宏观破坏。     

采矿巷道围岩变形机制数值模拟研究

研究了大冶铁矿龙洞-62 m、-74 m水平采矿巷道开挖后的二次应力分布及巷道变形机制。首先根据现场工程地质勘查和室内岩石力学试验对巷道围岩进行了工程地质分组和岩石力学参数确定;在此基础上运用FLAC3D数值模拟软件研究了巷道开挖后的应力应变状态,分析了围岩变形机制;并根据-74 m水平采矿巷道的收敛监测数据对比验证了数值模拟结果。研究结果表明,围岩条件不同的采矿巷道其二次应力分布影响范围有所差异,但围岩主应力总体上表现为由巷道边墙中下部位的压应力集中带逐步过渡到拱顶、底板一定范围内的拉应力集中带。     

Fracture Network Volume Fracturing Technology in High-temperature Hard Formation of Hot Dry Rock

It is more difficult for a hot dry rock to form a fracture network system than shale due to its special lithology, physical and mechanical properties under high temperature. The essential characteristics, rock mechanics and in-situ stress characteristics of a hot rock mass have been systematically studied by means of laboratory tests and true tri-axial physical simulation. The fracture initiation and propagation characteristics under different geological and engineering conditions are physically simulated, and the main controlling factors for the formation of a complex fracture network are revealed. The technology of low displacement for enhancing thermal cracking, gel fluid for expanding fracture and variable displacement cyclic injection for increasing a fracture network has been applied in the field, and good results have been achieved. Micro-seismic monitoring results demonstrate that complex fractures were formed in the field test, and the stimulation volume for heat exchanging reaches more than 3 million cubic meters. The research results play an important role in the stimulation technology of an enhanced geothermal system (EGS) and realize a breakthrough for power generation.     

裂隙岩体渗透结构类型分析

岩体的渗透结构控制着裂隙岩体的宏观渗透特征,而控制着岩体渗透结构类型的地质因素却是复杂多样。在实际工程岩体中,裂隙岩体的渗透结构通常是由基本渗透结构经过组合叠加而形成的复合渗透结构类型。本文通过野外调研和室内统计分析,总结了裂隙岩体中广泛存在的5种基本渗透结构类型及其4种组合形式的复合渗透结构类型及其渗流特征,分别归为Ⅰ-Ⅱ型、Ⅲ-Ⅳ型、Ⅰ-Ⅱ-Ⅲ型和Ⅰ-Ⅲ-Ⅳ型。并选择一工程实例,运用裂隙岩体复合渗透结构类型的分析方法,分析了西南某水电站主厂房和开关站边坡岩体的复合渗透结构类型以Ⅲ-Ⅳ型和Ⅰ-Ⅲ-Ⅳ型为主,更符合实际情况。     

浙江苍岭隧道岩爆工程地质特征分析与防治措施研究

根据在浙江苍岭隧道施工中发生的岩爆,通过现场地质观测资料,具体地分析了其形成的规模、位置、诱发因素以及地质条件,从地质工程的角度,对岩爆发生地段隧道的岩石组成、地质构造、地应力特征以及地下水情况进行了探讨,发现在苍岭隧道施工中发生岩爆的岩石具有岩体结构面发育适中、弹性模量大、P波波速高、地质构造简单、现代水平构造应力强且主压应力轴σ1大角度相交于隧道中轴线和地下水不发育的特征,并在此基础上,提出了掌子面喷水、布设释放地应力锚杆、减少隧道壁聚能结构等有效的岩爆防治措施。     

Studying the Interaction Between Active Faults and Landslide Phenomenon: Case Study of Landslide in Latian, Northeast Tehran, Iran

In this article, the interaction between active faults and landslide phenomenon is studied. The case study concerns the landslide in the east of Latian Dam to the northeast of Tehran, the Capital of Iran. The methodology was based on geological studies, geomorphologic studies, the study of landslide phenomenon including its characteristics and its parameters, hydrogeology, geological engineering and the geotechnical studies. The results show that landslide is located in the crush and mylonitized zone of the Roodehen active fault. The geological formation includes the landslides of the Eocene tuffs, which have been severely crushed and pulverized by the Roodehen Fault’s actions, and for this reason, they show very weak geotechnical characteristics compared to the natural tuffs. The layering slope of the formation is according to the natural ground slope and facilitates their slips. According to the results, the main reason for landslide is the impact of the Roodehen active fault and the creation of crush and mylonitized zone in the Eocene tuffs, while the secondary parameters are the local geological structures, the unfavorable conditions of the groundwater and their inadequate drainage and the construction of a road along the ground layers. The existence of groundwater, the low impermeability of the landslide materials and the inadequate drainage are also under the influence of the fault. Moreover, based on the results of this research and the location of the considered landslide and a number of others along the Roodehen Fault, it became possible to study the fault’s activity from a seismotectonic point of view and to estimate the magnitude of such an eventuality by methods other than the conventional ones.     

破碎岩体压实特性的三维离散元数值计算方法研究

研究破碎岩体的压实特性是矿井地下工程的基础工作之一,由于破碎岩体所处环境的隐蔽性与危险性,常采用实验室测试和数值计算的研究方法。提出了一种三维破碎岩体模型构建方法,即在3D Voronoi建立完整岩体数值模型的基础上,通过预定孔隙率,随机删除完整岩体中的块体反演破碎岩体结构,测定破碎岩体的压实特性。该方法可较真实地反映破碎岩体的块度特征、碎胀特性与压实特性,与现有研究方法有较高的吻合度,为矿山地下工程的安全控制提供了新的有效的研究方法。     

白鹤滩柱状节理岩体真三轴模型试验研究

在柱状节理玄武岩工程地质调查、现场精细结构描述等工作基础上,开展了柱状节理玄武岩体的脆性材料模型真三轴物理模拟试验。研究了复合柱状岩体在不同卸荷-加载应力途径下的破裂、破坏机制及不同方向三轴主应力作用下的应力-应变关系及其强度特性;开展的8种不同应力比和6种不同受力方向下各向异性试验结果表明,柱状节理玄武岩体强度、变形特征受三向不等围压和柱状节理特性影响明显,强度变形的各向异性特征显著。试验结果表明,应力比 对试样的强度、变形和破坏模式具有控制作用,随着应力比的变化,试样的极限强度呈现分段特性;较小应力比下试样的变形和破坏模式受应力比和原生节理的共同影响;较大的应力比对试样的变形和破坏模式的影响比原生节理的影响显著;随着应力比的增大,中主应力由约束侧向变形变为主动加载,这一作用的变化影响了极限荷载和破坏模式。