Assessment of long-range kinematic GPS positioning errors by comparison with airborne laser altimetry and satellite altimetry

Long-range airborne laser altimetry and laser scanning (LIDAR) or airborne gravity surveys in, for example, polar or oceanic areas require airborne kinematic GPS baselines of many hundreds of kilometers in length. In such instances, with the complications of ionospheric biases, it can be a real challenge for traditional differential kinematic GPS software to obtain reasonable solutions. In this paper, we will describe attempts to validate an implementation of the precise point positioning (PPP) technique on an aircraft without the use of a local GPS reference station. We will compare PPP solutions with other conventional GPS solutions, as well as with independent data by comparison of airborne laser data with “ground truth” heights. The comparisons involve two flights: A July 5, 2003, airborne laser flight line across the North Atlantic from Iceland to Scotland, and a May 24, 2004, flight in an area of the Arctic Ocean north of Greenland, near-coincident in time and space with the ICESat satellite laser altimeter. Both of these flights were more than 800 km long. Comparisons between different GPS methods and four different software packages do not suggest a clear preference for any one, with the heights generally showing decimeter-level agreement. For the comparison with the independent ICESat- and LIDAR-derived “ground truth” of ocean or sea-ice heights, the statistics of comparison show a typical fit of around 10 cm RMS in the North Atlantic, and 30 cm in the sea-ice region north of Greenland. Part of the latter 30 cm error is likely due to errors in the airborne LIDAR measurement and calibration, as well as errors in the “ground truth” ocean surfaces due to drifting sea-ice. Nevertheless, the potential of the PPP method for generating 10 cm level kinematic height positioning over long baselines is illustrated.     

Laser pointing angle and time of measurement verification of the ICESat laser altimeter using a ground-based electro-optical detection system

The Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) will begin science operations in 2003 with an emphasis on determination of the ice sheet temporal variations in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The ICESat bus will serve as the transport for an instrument called the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS). GLAS will provide altimetry and lidar measurements with a high level of accuracy. For altimetry, the GLAS data will enable determination of the laser pointing angle to within 1.5 arcsec and the laser pulse time of arrival on the ground to within 100 sec. Both of these data products contribute to the determination of the measured altitude vector from the spacecraft to the ice surface. Verification of both the laser pointing angle and the timing can be achieved by using a unique experimental technique designed to capture an altimeter pulse on the surface of the Earth. The capture of the laser pulse is accomplished by covering the illuminated area with devices designed to detect the arrival of energy within the altimeter footprint. This ground-based technique will supply an independent, unambiguous determination of the laser footprint geolocation and the epoch time associated with the arrival of the pulse on the surface. Knowledge of the laser footprint centroid on the ground will infer the laser pointing direction in the geocentric reference frame. This in situ measurement of the footprint geolocation and time of arrival will be compared to the corresponding data products provided by GLAS. The comparison of the GLAS laser pointing and the timing data with an independent measurement will verify the accuracy and/or will indicate the existence of any biases or errors in the generation of the GLAS altimetry data products. The detectors have been designed and tested in the laboratory and analyzed for energy level thresholds, system stability, temperature response and overall performance. Timing hardware has been tested and software has been written to achieve event detection within the desired accuracy.     

卫星激光测高严密几何模型构建及精度初步验证

采用星载激光测高仪辅助提高卫星立体影像几何定位精度特别是高程精度,已经得到了航天摄影测量界的重视,计划于2018年发射的高分七号卫星上将同时搭载光学立体相机和激光测高仪。虽然,已有相关文献针对美国的ICESat(Ice,Cloud,and land Elevation Satellite)卫星上搭载的地球科学激光测高系统(Geo-science Laser Altimeter System,GLAS)的几何模型和产品精度作了相关介绍,但对其严密的几何定位模型和精度验证目前还没有系统性的阐述。本文较全面地对激光测高卫星的严密几何模型进行了构建与精度分析,并选择ICESat/GLAS的0级辅助文件,采用严密几何模型重现了2级产品的生产过程。将本文计算的结果与ICESat/GLAS的结果进行了对比分析,其中基于几何模型的高程误差约11 cm,平面误差在3 cm以内,表明所提出的严密几何模型的正确性,同时采用新发射的资源三号02星的激光测高数据进行了初步处理和验证。相关结论可为国产高分后续卫星的激光测高数据处理提供参考。     

星载激光光斑影像激光指向变化探测法

地面光斑足印的定位精度高度依赖于激光指向角的测量精度,星载激光光斑质心提取及其变化规律对激光指向角的分析具有重要的意义。本文基于ICESat/GLAS的激光剖面阵列（laser profile array,LPA）影像数据,首先利用灰度一阶矩阵法提取LPA的质心,精度优于0.3个像素,LPA相对定位精度优于0.11个像素。其次利用傅里叶变换和傅里叶级数拟合对LPA质心坐标的变化进行周期探测和建模分析,结果表明,激光光斑影像的质心坐标存在1.83×10^-4 Hz、3.36×10^-4 Hz、5.19×10^-4 Hz和6.71×10^-4 Hz 4个明显的周期变化,拟合结果的相关性R²达到了0.86,拟合精度可达0.4″,优于0.13个像素,得到了较好的结果。可为我国的高分七号和后续的卫星激光测高数据处理提供参考。     

Geodetic constraints from multi-beam laser altimeter crossovers

The round-trip travel time measurements made by spacecraft laser altimeters are primarily used to construct topographic maps of the target body. The accuracy of the calculated bounce point locations of the laser pulses depends on the quality of the spacecraft trajectory reconstruction. The trajectory constraints from Doppler and range radio tracking data can be supplemented by altimetric “crossovers”, to greatly improve the reconstruction of the spacecraft trajectory. Crossovers have been used successfully in the past (e.g., Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter on Mars Global Surveyor), but only with single-beam altimeters. The same algorithms can be used with a multi-beam laser altimeter, but we present a method using the unique cross-track topographic information present in the multi-beam data. Those crossovers are especially adapted to shallow (small angle) intersections, as the overlapping area is large, reducing the inherent ambiguities of single-beam data in that situation. We call those “swath crossovers”. They prove particularly useful in the case of polar-orbiting spacecraft over slowly rotating bodies, because all the non-polar crossovers have small intersection angles. To demonstrate this method, we perform a simplified simulation based on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and its five-beam Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter. We show that swath crossovers over one lunar month can independently, from geometry alone, recover the imposed orbital perturbations with great accuracy (5 m horizontal, < 1 m vertical, about one order of magnitude smaller than the imposed perturbations). We also present new types of constraints that can be derived from the swath crossovers, and designed to be used in a precision orbit determination setup. In future work, we will use such multi-beam altimetric constraints with data from LRO.     

资源三号02星激光测高误差分析与指向角粗标定

2016年5月30日,中国成功发射了民用三线阵立体测图卫星资源三号02星,该卫星搭载了中国第一个用于对地观测的激光测高试验性载荷。资源三号02星在轨运行以来获取了多轨测高数据,为保证其测高数据的有效应用,需分析影响测高精度的各项误差来源,并通过一定的方法予以消除或减弱。首先根据卫星激光测高严密几何模型分析资源三号02星激光测高的各项误差来源,分析表明激光指向角对激光测高精度的影响相对较大;构建通过已有大范围地形数据进行激光指向角粗标定的数学模型,并利用已有公开地形数据（AW3D30 DSM）对激光指向角进行粗标定,从而提高激光足印定位精度。实验结果表明,利用已有地形数据对指向角进行粗标定后,能将激光测高精度从几十米提高到3 m以内,验证了卫星激光测高误差分析的合理性和利用已有地形数据修正激光指向角的数学模型的有效性,为消除卫星激光测高粗差提供了参考,能为星载激光测高外场在轨检校工作提供支撑。     

Long-wavelength global gravity field models: GRIM4-S4, GRIM4-C4

Summary.  GFZ Potsdam and GRGS Toulouse/Grasse jointly developed a new pair of global models of the Earth's gravity field to satisfy the requirements of the recent and future geodetic and altimeter satellite missions. A precise gravity model is a prerequisite for precise satellite orbit restitution, tracking station positioning and altimeter data reduction. According to different applications envisaged, the new model exists in two parallel versions: the first one being derived exclusively from satellite tracking data acquired on 34 satellites, the second one further incorporating satellite altimeter data over the oceans and terrestrial gravity data. The most recent “satellite-only” gravity model is labelled GRIM4-S4 and the “combined” gravity model GRIM4-C4. The models are solutions in spherical harmonics and have a resolution up to degree and order 60 plus a few resonance terms in the case of GRIM4-S4, and up to degree/order 72 in the case of GRIM4-C4, corresponding to a spatial resolution of 555 km at the Earth's surface. The gravitational coefficients were estimated in a rigorous least squares adjustment simultaneously with ocean tidal terms and tracking station position parameters, so that each gravity model is associated with a consistent ocean tide model and a terrestrial reference frame built up by over 300 optical, laser and Doppler tracking stations. Comprehensive quality tests with external data and models, and test arc computations over a wide range of satellites have demonstrated the state-of-the-art capabilities of both solutions in long-wavelength geoid representation and in precise orbit computation. Received 1 February 1996; Accepted 17 July 1996     

星载激光光斑影像质心自动提取方法

激光光斑影像的质心提取是卫星激光测高数据处理中的重要环节,对于获得精确的激光指向角有重要的意义。本文总结了灰度重心法、高斯拟合法以及椭圆拟合法3种常用的质心提取方法,在比较其优缺点之后结合高斯曲面拟合法和椭圆拟合法,提出了一种基于高斯阈值的椭圆拟合方法,针对仿真数据进行试验,有较好的精度结果。采用GLAS（geoscience laser altimeter system）的实际激光光斑影像LPA（laser profile array）数据进行试验,发现LPA光斑质心位置变化周期约为1.5 h,幅度最大可达2~3个像素,对应激光指向角变化约9",说明在轨监视激光质心位置变化对于提高激光指向角测量精度非常必要。相关结论可为后续国产卫星激光测高仪足印影像处理提供参考。     

高分七号卫星激光测高数据大型湖泊水位测量精度评估

卫星激光测高数据在湖泊水位测量方面具有重要的应用价值和独特优势,本文针对国产高分七号卫星上装备的线性体制全波形激光测高仪,开展在大型湖泊水位测量方面的应用探讨.介绍了高分七号卫星的基本参数,并与其他类卫星做了对比,分析了影响湖泊水位测量精度的卫星侧摆、大气散射、回波波形饱和等因素,研究了湖泊水面激光点的提取方法,结合I...     

A simulation study of multi-beam altimetry for lunar reconnaissance orbiter and other planetary missions

The combined use of altimetry, Earth-based Doppler and Earth-based range measurements in the lunar reconnaissance orbiter (LRO) mission (Chin et al. in Space Sci Rev 129:391–419, 2007) has been examined in a simulation study. It is found that in the initial phases of the mission orbit and altimeter geolocation accuracies should be better than 10 m in the radial component and 60 m overall. It is demonstrated that LRO’s precise 1-way laser range measurement from Earth-based stations (Smith et al. in Proceedings of the 15th International Laser Ranging Workshop, Canberra, Australia, October 15–20, 2006) will be useful for gravity recovery. The advantages of multiple laser beams are demonstrated for altimeter calibration, orbit determination and gravity recovery in general planetary settings as well as for LRO.     

Bathymetric inversion of South China Sea from satellite altimetry data

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A GIS-based decision support system for analysis of route choice in congested urban road networks

Urban congestion patterns have become ubiquitous and complex. Traditional, “static” approaches are no longer adequate for analyzing network flows and conducting minimum cost routing. This paper reports on a GIS-based decision support tool for modeling dynamic network congestion and conducting minimum cost routing. The system predicts network flows at a detailed level of temporal resolution, capturing dynamic congestion propagation effects. A Route Planner module solves for the combined departure time and minimum cost routing required for a trip to reach its destination by a given deadline. The GIS provides effective decision support through its database management capabilities, graphical user interfaces and cartographic visualization. This supports analyses of “what-if?” scenarios for strategic planning and tactical management subject to unplanned network disturbances. Received: 1 October 1999/Accepted: 21 September 2000     

Generalization of total least-squares on example of unweighted and weighted 2D similarity transformation

In this contribution it is shown that the so-called “total least-squares estimate” (TLS) within an errors-in-variables (EIV) model can be identified as a special case of the method of least-squares within the nonlinear Gauss–Helmert model. In contrast to the EIV-model, the nonlinear GH-model does not impose any restrictions on the form of functional relationship between the quantities involved in the model. Even more complex EIV-models, which require specific approaches like “generalized total least-squares” (GTLS) or “structured total least-squares” (STLS), can be treated as nonlinear GH-models without any serious problems. The example of a similarity transformation of planar coordinates shows that the “total least-squares solution” can be obtained easily from a rigorous evaluation of the Gauss–Helmert model. In contrast to weighted TLS, weights can then be introduced without further limitations. Using two numerical examples taken from the literature, these solutions are compared with those obtained from certain specialized TLS approaches.     

Earth rotation and network geometry optimization for very long baseline interferometers

Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) is one of the new techniques which will probably dominate geodesy and geophysics in the near future. Its main advantage lies in the fact that it brings the accuracy of direction measurements to a level previously possible only for range measurements. This closes the gap between powerful range determination techniques such as laser ranging and the much less accurate determination of directions through photographic tracking of artificial earth satellites. The technique is geometric in the sense that the relevant observations are independent of the gravity field of the earth. However, the “orbits” of the observed extragalactic radio sources with respect to an earth-fixed system are dominated and perturbed by the rotation of the earth with respect to inertial frame. This allows the determination of polar motion, precession-nutation and length-of-the-day variations, and the technique becomes also “dynamic” in this respect. The capability of determining the geometry of a network of stations within a short time interval and with a centimeter level accuracy also allows the study of the variation of network geometry with time caused by earth tides and other periodic or secular station drifts. The main objective of the present work is the exploration of the capabilities of VLBI for the recovery of earth rotation and network geometry parameters. For this purpose, a number of characteristic experimental designs based on present and candidate for the near future station locations is chosen. The results from the analysis of simulated observations for each particular design are presented in the paper. Presented at IAG International Symposium on “Optimization of Design and Computation of Control Networks”, Sopron, Hungary, 4–10 July 1977.     

THE THEORY AND APPLICATION OF THE STRUCTURE LIGHT ENGINEERING SURVEYING BASED ON A LASER THEODOLITE WITH THREE FREEDOMS OF ROTATION

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基于星载激光雷达和雷达高度计数据的南极冰盖表面高程制图

南极数字高程模型DEMs(Digital Elevation Models)是研究极区大气环流模式,南极冰盖动态变化和南极科学考察非常重要的基础数据。目前,科学家已经发布了五种不同的南极数字表面高程模型。这些数据都是由卫星雷达高度计,激光雷达和部分地面实测数据等制作而成。尽管如此,由于海洋与冰盖交接的南极冰盖边缘区随时间的快速变化,有必要根据新的卫星数据及时更新南极冰盖表面高程数据。因此,我们利用雷达高度计数据(Envisat RA-2)和激光雷达数据(ICESat/GLAS)制作了最新的南极冰盖高程数据。为提高ICESat/GLAS数据的精度,本文采用了五种不同的质量控制指标对GLAS数据进行处理,滤除了8.36%的不合格数据。这五种质量控制指标分别针对卫星定位误差、大气前向散射、饱和度及云的影响。同时,对Envisat RA-2数据进行干湿对流层纠正、电离层纠正、固体潮汐纠正和极潮纠正。针对两种不同的测高数据,提出了一种基于Envisat RA-2和GLAS数据光斑脚印几何相交的高程相对纠正方法,即通过分析GLAS脚印点与Envisat RA-2数据中心点重叠的点对,建立这些相交点对的高度差(GLAS-RA-2)与表征地形起伏的粗糙度之间的相关关系,对具有稳定相关关系的点对进行Envisat RA-2数据的相对纠正。通过分析南极冰盖不同区域的测高点密度,确定最终DEM的分辨率为1000 m。考虑到南极普里兹湾和内陆地区的差异性,将南极冰盖分为16个区,利用半方差分析确定最佳插值模型和参数,采用克吕金插值方法生成了1000 m分辨率的南极冰盖高程数据。利用两种机载激光雷达数据和我国多次南极科考实测的GPS数据对新的南极DEM进行了验证。结果显示,新的DEM与实测数据的差值范围为3.21—27.84 m,其误差分布与坡度密切关系。与国际上发布的南极DEM数据相比,新的DEM在坡度较大地区和快速变化的冰盖边缘地区精度有较大改进。     

资源三号02星激光测高仪在轨几何检校与试验验证

我国在资源三号02星上首次搭载了一台用于对地观测的试验性载荷——激光测高仪,开展对地观测的激光测高试验。由于卫星发射时的振动以及入轨后空间环境变化等因素影响,激光测高仪的指向、测距等系统参数相对于发射前地面测量值可能发生变化,从而引起激光的平面和高程误差。本文根据资源三号02星激光测高仪特点,提出了一种基于地面探测器的在轨几何检校方法,该方法构建了以指向、测距为系统误差的严密几何检校模型,以激光测距值残差最小为原则,利用地面探测器捕获的激光光斑位置作为参考,实现系统误差参数高精度在轨几何检校。利用卫星在轨测试期间多个试验场数据进行检校后,以有关DEM数据作为地面参考比对,地形坡度小于2°区域内的激光点高程精度由检校前的100~140m提高到2~3m。利用平坦地区激光足印内少量GPS外业控制点进行验证对比,检校后激光高程测量的绝对精度优于1m。试验结果表明了资源三号02星激光测高仪在轨几何检校方法的有效性和正确性。     

The accuracy of astronomic azimuth determinations

Astronomic azimuths are used in classical geodesy, through the Laplace equation, to control the orientation of geodetic networks. The method most commonly used by the United States National Geodetic Survey for the determination of astronomic azimuth is often referred to as the “direction method”, and is based on observations of Polaris at any hour angle. We have analyzed repeat determinations, by analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques, to derive realistic estimates of the expected accuracy of typical astronomic azimuths to be used in the readjustment of the North American Datum. We found that the dominant errors are systematic in nature, with a very important source being observer bias, or “personal equation”. We were unable to decompose the remaining systematic error, which presumably consists primarily of instrument biases, anomalous refraction, and setup errors. We found, from an analysis of determinations that were first corrected for observer bias, an increase in the variance of repeat azimuth determinations as a function of latitude that agrees reasonably well with theoretical expectations.     

＂Digital Region＂ in the Context of the ＂Grid Computing＂

This paper is to construct a “digital local, regional, region“ information framework based on the technology of “SIG“ and its significance and application to the regional sustainable development evaluation system. First, the concept of the “grid computing“ and “SIG“ is interpreted and discussed, then the relationship between the “grid computing“ and “digital region“ is analyzed, and the framework of the “digital region“ is put forward. Finally, the significance and application of “grid computing“ to the “region sustainable development evaluation system“ are discussed.     

利用ICESat交叉点分析探测恩德比地冰盖近年高程变化

通过改进卫星激光测高地面轨迹交叉点高差时间序列算法,利用各期ICESat观测值的交叉点和不同期间交叉点的高差组成高程变化的时间序列,探测东南极恩德比地地区近年来冰盖表面高程变化趋势,得到恩德比地2003~2007年冰盖高程变化趋势为4.79±0.13 cm/a。