Observations of Boundary-Layer Wind-Tunnel Flow over Isolated Ridges of Varying Steepness and Roughness

Boundary-layer wind-tunnel flow is measured over isolated ridges of varyingsteepness and roughness. The steepness/roughness parameter space is chosento produce flows that range from fully attached to strongly separated. Measurementsshow that maximum speedup at the hill crest is significantly lower than predictedby linear theory and that recovery in the lee of the hill is much slower for stronglyseparated flow over steep terrain. The measurements also show that behaviour ofthe mean and turbulent components of the flow on the downwind side of the ridgeis fundamentally different between separated and non-separated flows. This suggeststhe dominance of much increased turbulence time and length scales in the lee of thehill in association with a production mechanism that scales with the hill length ratherthan the proximity to the surface as on the windward side of the hill crest.     

Mini-Sodar Observations of Drainage Flows in the Rocky Mountains

Summary  Vertical profiles of drainage winds were monitored continuously by a Doppler-Mini-Sodar during case studies in two valleys, on both sides of the U. S. Continental Divide. A tethered balloon provided additional information on the vertical temperature and wind structure up to the Divide level. Ambient wind data were collected by a radar wind profiler on the west side, and a tower on the crest of the Divide. The onset, evolution and breakup of the drainage flow were studied on two nights, when the ridge-top winds were westerly and skies were clear. To study the influence of the ambient flow on drainage winds, changes in drainage wind speed, direction and depth, along with the volume flux were examined. It was found that, on the leeward side, the drainage was strongly influenced by the ambient winds (King, 1995b), which led to interruption and erosion of the locally generated valley flow. The drainage on the windward side of the Divide was almost undisturbed. A comparison of balloon and sodar wind profiles showed very good agreement during steady drainage conditions. Received October 21, 1996 Revised November 30, 1998     

新疆克拉玛依强下坡风暴的机理研究

利用美国中尺度数值模式 WRF 对2013年3月7—8日克拉玛依强风进行了模拟,对下坡风发生、发展和结束3个阶段的三维结构特征进行了分析,并由此提出克拉玛依强下坡风的形成机制模型：上游地区出现中高层西南风、低层西北风并伴有强冷平流的配置,当风速不断增大时,气流能够翻越加依尔山在背风坡侧形成重力波,重力波相位向气流上游方向倾斜产生非线性效应,促进了波不稳定区域的形成并导致波破碎,形成湍流活跃层,不断把上层的能量向下传播;克拉玛依中低层形成三层夹心的大气层结稳定度分布,出现明显的过渡气流带从而导致强下坡风的形成;南北风分量在低层和中层符号相反,形成了临界层,不断吸收上层波能量并向地面传送,强下坡风暴不断维持发展。最后利用2006—2012年克拉玛依33个强下坡风过程中的探空观测资料对提出的形成机制进行了验证。     

An analysis of the topographical effect on turbulence and diffusion in the atmosphere's boundary layer

An analysis of the wind data recorded at the fifteen stations in the Salt Lake Valley indicates that the distributions of the kinetic energy of the mean and turbulent motions in the valley are generally inhomogeneous and nonstationary. The mean motion in the valley, which is strongly affected by the mountain-valley winds, shows a southeasterly flow in the evening and early morning, a northwesterly flow in the afternoon, and a transitional flow in the late morning and after sunset. The mountain winds generally associate with a horizontally convergent flow, whereas the valley winds associate with a horizontally divergent flow. The distributions of the kinetic energy of the mean and turbulent motions show a maximum occurring in the central part of the valley and two minimums, one in the northern and one in the southern part of the valley. In the afternoon, both the mean and turbulent motions increase their intensities, particularly in the western part of the valley. An analysis of the dispersion characteristics indicates that the rate of diffusion in the valley changes with time and space, with a maximum occurring in the early afternoon and minimum in the early morning.     

Daytime Turbulence Statistics above a Steep Forested Slope

Six levels of simultaneously sampled ultrasonic data are used to analyse the turbulence structure within a mixed forest of 13 m height on a steep slope (35°) in an alpine valley. The data set is compared to other studies carried out over forests in more ideal, flat terrain. The analysis is carried out for 30-min mean data, joint probability distributions, length scales and spectral characteristics.Thermally induced upslope winds and cold air drainage lead to a wind speed maximum within the trunk space. Slope winds are superimposed on valley winds and the valley-wind component becomes stronger with increasing height. Slope and valley winds are thus interacting on different spatial and time scales leading to a quite complex pattern in momentum transport that differs significantly from surface-layer characteristics. Directional shear causes lateral momentum transports that are in the same order or even larger than the longitudinal ones. In the canopy, however, a sharp attenuation of turbulence is observed. Skewed distributions of velocity components indicate that intermittent turbulent transport plays an important role in the energy distribution.Even though large-scale pressure fields lead to characteristic features in the turbulent structure that are superimposed on the canopy flow, it is found that many statistical properties typical of both mixing layers and canopy flow are observed in the data set.     

Mountain effect on the motion in the atmosphere's boundary layer

An analysis of 3 years' (1967–70) radiosonde wind data on the windward (Salt Lake City, Utah) and lee (Denver, Colorado) sides of mountains indicates that at these two stations: (1) the distributions of the kinetic energy of the mean and turbulent motions are similar above the mountain top; (2) below the mountain top, on the windward side, mountains tend to divert the component of the mean motion normal to the mountains to that parallel to the mountains; (3) the meridional eddy transport of westerly momentum is affected by the presence of the mountains to a higher level to the lee of the mountains than upwind of them; (4) the production of turbulent energy is higher below the mountain top in the vicinity of mountains than it is for the zonal average; (5) high frequencies of the motion show a more pronounced contribution in the meridional motion in the windward side, but in the zonal motion in the lee of the mountains; (6) disturbances of 1–2 day periods can be maintained deep into the valley, whereas disturbances of longer periods reduce their amplitudes rapidly with decreasing height from the mountain top; (7) the cospectra of the wind velocities show that the southward/northward transport of westerly momentum results from a southward/northward contribution from most frequencies. The main contributions come from eddies with periods longer than two days.     

Turbulence in an almond orchard: Vertical variations in turbulent statistics

Three-dimensional wind velocity components were measured above and within a uniform almond orchard. Turbulent statistics associated with the turbulent flow inside the canopy are examined in detail. Turbulence in an almond orchard is characterized by relatively high turbulent intensities and large skewness and kurtosis values. These results indicate that the frequency distribution of wind velocity components is non-Gaussian. Conditional sampling of the turbulent measurements show that large, infrequent sweeps provide the predominant mechanism for tangential momentum stress in the canopy crown. Deep inside the canopy, a secondary wind maximum and small, but positive, tangential momentum stresses are observed.     

Wind-Flow Dynamics Over a Vineyard

Wind-flow dynamics has been extensively studied over horizontally uniform canopies, but agricultural plantations structured in rows such as vineyards have received less attention. Here, the wind flow over a vineyard is studied in neutral stratification from both large-eddy simulation (LES) and in situ measurements. The impact of row structure on the wind dynamics is investigated over a range of wind directions from cross-row to down-row, and a typical range of row aspect ratio (row separation/height ratio). It is shown that the mean flow over a vineyard is similar to that observed in uniform canopies, especially for wind directions from cross-row to diagonal. For down-row winds, the mean flow exhibits noticeable spatial variability across each elementary row-gap pattern, as the wind is channeled in the inter-row. This spatial variability increases with the aspect ratio. With down-row winds the turbulent structures are also more intermittent and generate larger turbulent kinetic energy and momentum flux. The displacement height and roughness length of the vineyard vary with the aspect ratio in a way similar to their variation with canopy density in uniform canopies. Both parameters take smaller values in down-row wind flow, for which the canopy appears more open. The analysis of velocity spectra and autocorrelation functions shows that vineyard canopies share similar features to uniform canopies in terms of turbulent coherent structures, with only minor changes with wind direction.     

Interactions of nocturnal slope flows with ambient winds

A quasi-one-dimensional numerical model containing a prognostic turbulent kinetic energy parameterization and simplified approximations to horizontal gradients is used to study interactions of thermally induced nocturnal slope flows with following and opposing ambient winds. It is found that a following ambient wind causes the peak perturbation wind to be weaker and to be realized at a greater height, while an opposing ambient wind leads to a stronger perturbation wind at a lower height. The reason for this response lies in the interactions of the shears of the thermal and ambient components through the mechanical production of turbulent kinetic energy.     

Mean and Turbulent Flow Statistics in a Trellised Agricultural Canopy

Flow physics is investigated in a two-dimensional trellised agricultural canopy to examine that architecture’s unique signature on turbulent transport. Analysis of meteorological data from an Oregon vineyard demonstrates that the canopy strongly influences the flow by channelling the mean flow into the vine-row direction regardless of the above-canopy wind direction. Additionally, other flow statistics in the canopy sub-layer show a dependance on the difference between the above-canopy wind direction and the vine-row direction. This includes an increase in the canopy displacement height and a decrease in the canopy-top shear length scale as the above-canopy flow rotates from row-parallel towards row-orthogonal. Distinct wind-direction-based variations are also observed in the components of the stress tensor, turbulent kinetic energy budget, and the energy spectra. Although spectral results suggest that sonic anemometry is insufficient for resolving all of the important scales of motion within the canopy, the energy spectra peaks still exhibit dependencies on the canopy and the wind direction. These variations demonstrate that the trellised-canopy’s effect on the flow during periods when the flow is row-aligned is similar to that seen by sparse canopies, and during periods when the flow is row-orthogonal, the effect is similar to that seen by dense canopies.     

Observational Study of Surface Wind along a Sloping Surface over Mountainous Terrain during Winter

The 2018 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games will be held in Pyeongchang, Korea, during February and March. We examined the near surface winds and wind gusts along the sloping surface at two outdoor venues in Pyeongchang during February and March using surface wind data. The outdoor venues are located in a complex, mountainous terrain, and hence the near-surface winds form intricate patterns due to the interplay between large-scale and locally forced winds. During February and March, the dominant wind at the ridge level is westerly; however, a significant wind direction change is observed along the sloping surface at the venues. The winds on the sloping surface are also influenced by thermal forcing,showing increased upslope flow during daytime. When neutral air flows over the hill, the windward and leeward flows show a significantly different behavior. A higher correlation of the wind speed between upper-and lower-level stations is shown in the windward region compared with the leeward region. The strong synoptic wind, small width of the ridge, and steep leeward ridge slope angle provide favorable conditions for flow separation at the leeward foot of the ridge. The gust factor increases with decreasing surface elevation and is larger during daytime than nighttime. A significantly large gust factor is also observed in the leeward region.     

A numerical study of the effects of synoptic baroclinicity on stable boundary-layer evolution

The effects of synoptic baroclinicity on the evolution of the stable boundary layer are studied by using a numerical model in which the eddy exchange coefficients are determined from the turbulent kinetic energy and a local turbulent length scale. For model verification, several barotropic simulations are compared with those of higher-order closure models. The model predicts the existence of a value of geostrophic wind shear at which the nocturnal jet reaches its maximum intensity. The mechanism by which ageostrophic flow is generated and the role it plays in the development of the jet are explored. As baroclinicity increases, the directional shear in the wind near the level of the jet increases, thereby allowing the nocturnal inversion to grow to levels well above that of the jet.Journal Paper No. J-11109 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames, IA. Project 2521.     

北京冬季大风过程大气边界层特征分析

利用北京中国科学院大气物理研究所325 m气象观测塔的气象梯度资料和湍流资料,分析了2014年11月29日至12月5日北京两次大风过程中气象要素和湍流输送特征的变化。第一次大风过程的强度和持续时间均高于第二次大风过程。强烈的风速垂直切变主要集中在距地面100 m高度范围内,最强风速垂直切变达到0.31 s~(-1)。大风过程中,阵风系数呈现随高度减小的趋势,越接近地面,阵风系数愈大。阵风强度的变化与阵风系数相似,100 m以下高度时,阵风强度随高度增大而减小。大风过程自上而下改变边界层结构,平均动能、湍流动能和摩擦速度最先从上层(280 m)发生变化且迅速增加。近地层由于风速垂直梯度的显著差异,近地层垂直方向的湍流强度最大。大风时各功率谱在低频区(0.01 s~(-1))达到峰值,大风过后各高度的能量都有所下降。     

Mean Flow and Turbulence Characteristics in an Urban Roughness Sublayer

In this study, a detailed model of an urban landscape has been re-constructed inthe wind tunnel and the flow structure inside and above the urban canopy has beeninvestigated. Vertical profiles of all three velocity components have been measuredwith a Laser-Doppler velocimeter, and an extensive analysis of the measured meanflow and turbulence profiles carried out. With respect to the flow structure inside thecanopy, two types of velocity profiles can be distinguished. Within street canyons,the mean wind velocities are almost zero or negative below roof level, while closeto intersections or open squares, significantly higher mean velocities are observed.In the latter case, the turbulent velocities inside the canopy also tend to be higherthan at street-canyon locations. For both types, turbulence kinetic energy and shearstress profiles show pronounced maxima in the flow region immediately above rooflevel.Based on the experimental data, a shear-stress parameterization is proposed, inwhich the velocity scale, u_s, and length scale, z_s, are based on the level and magnitude of the shear stress peak value. In order to account for a flow region inside the canopy with negligible momentum transport, a shear stress displacement height, d_s, is introduced. The proposed scaling and parameterization perform well for the measured profiles and shear-stress data published in the literature.The length scales derived from the shear-stress parameterization also allowdetermination of appropriate scales for the mean wind profile. The roughnesslength, z₀, and displacement height, d₀, can both be described as fractions of the distance, z_s - d_s, between the level of the shear-stress peak and the shear-stress displacement height. This result can be interpreted in such a way that the flow only feels the zone of depth z_s - d_s as the roughness layer. With respect to the lower part of the canopy (z < d_s) the flow behaves as a skimming flow. Correlations between the length scales z_s and d_s and morphometric parameters are discussed.The mean wind profiles above the urban structure follow a logarithmic windlaw. A combination of morphometric estimation methods for d₀ and z₀ with wind velocity measurements at a reference height, which allow calculation of the shear-stress velocity, u_*, appears to be the most reliable and easiest procedure to determine mean wind profile parameters. Inside the roughnesssublayer, a local scaling approach results in good agreement between measuredand predicted mean wind profiles.     

A wind tunnel study of air flow in waving wheat: Single-point velocity statistics

We analyse single-point velocity statistics obtained in a wind tunnel within and above a model of a waving wheat crop, consisting of nylon stalks 47 mm high and 0.25 mm wide in a square array with frontal area index 0.47. The variability of turbulence measurements in the wind tunnel is illustrated by using a set of 71 vertical traverses made in different locations, all in the horizontally-homogeneous (above-canopy) part of the boundary layer. Ensemble-averaged profiles of the statistical moments up to the fourth order and profiles of Eulerian length scales are presented and discussed. They are consistent with other similar experiments and reveal the existence of large-scale turbulent coherent structures in the flow. The drag coefficient in this canopy as well as in other reported experiments is shown to exhibit a characteristic height-dependency, for which we propose an interpretation. The velocity spectra are analysed in detail; within and just above the canopy, a scaling based on fixed length and velocity scales (canopy height and mean horizontal wind speed at canopy top) is proposed. Examination of the turbulent kinetic energy and shear stress budgets confirms the role of turbulent transport in the region around the canopy top, and indicates that pressure transport may be significant in both cases. The results obtained here show that near the top of the canopy, the turbulence properties are more reminiscent of a plane mixing layer than a wall boundary layer.     

Boundary-layer structure near the cold front of a marine cyclone during “ERICA”

The boundary layer in the warm sector of a moderately deepening winter cyclone during the Experiment on Rapidly Intensifying Cyclones over the Atlantic (ERICA) is studied near the cold front. Data from the National Center for Atmospheric Research Electra research aircraft are used to examine mean and turbulence quantities. The aircraft data and supplemental data from ships, drifting buoys and moored buoys reveal an equivalent-barotropic pressure field. The area is found to be dominated by gradients in temperature and in turbulent fluxes, with changes occurring over 100 km horizontally being comparable to changes over 350 m vertically. The horizontal components of the gradients are found to be a maximum in a direction perpendicular to the front. Cross-sections perpendicular to the front are used to illustrate boundary-layer structure. Profiles of wind speed, stress, wind direction and stress direction are estimated from an Ekman model that is modified to take into account the equivalent-barotropic pressure field. Comparison of profiles from the model to the aircraft-measured data show reasonable agreement far from the front (100 km) when the model uses a constant eddy viscosity of approximately 6 kg m^–1 s^–1. Near the front there is less agreement with the model. Profiles of turbulent fluxes of momentum, heat and latent heat are divergent, with along-wind momentum flux negative and decreasing upward, cross-wind momentum flux positive and increasing upward, and heat flux and latent heat flux small, positive and decreasing upward. Far from the front, the turbulent kinetic energy budget shows that dissipation balances shear production. However, near-front behavior has an imbalance at low altitude, with shear production appearing as a TKE sink.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF TURBULENT FLOW IN AND ABOVE PLANT CANOPIES

The turbulent flow in and above plant canopies is of fundamental importance to the understanding oftransport processes of momentum,heat and mass between plant canopies and atmosphere,and to microme-teorology.The Reynolds stress equation model(RSM)has been applied to calculate the turbulence in cano-pies in this paper.The calculated mean wind velocity profiles,Reynolds stress,turbulent kinetic energy andviscous dissipation rate in a corn canopy and a spruce forest are compared with field observed data and withWilson's and Shaw's model.The velocity profiles and Rynolds stress calculated by both models are in goodagreement,and the length scale of turbulence appears to be similar.     

基于ERA5再分析资料的余姚地区阵风预报模型探究

利用2007—2017年余姚地区44个气象自动站观测数据和欧洲中心ERA5再分析资料,对余姚地区日极大风分布进行了统计分析,并提出一种本地化的经验阵风预报模型(雷暴日除外)。研究发现:余姚地区日极大风呈正态分布,风力峰值为4～5级,平均每年大风日占比达7.03%,累计大风时次占比3.32%,年平均大风日26 d。风力越小,阵风与平均风之间的线性拟合效果越好。影响阵风预报的因子主要有10 m平均风速、925 hPa风速、地面粗糙度、摩擦速度和3 h变压。6级及以下阵风预报中,业务中的阵风经验系数1.4容易造成余姚本地阵风预报偏低,适用于余姚本地阵风预报经验系数为1.775;6级以上阵风预报经验方程考虑了平均风速、垂直动量下传、水平动量传输、地面摩擦和海拔高度订正,其与925 hPa风速的平方呈正相关,与摩擦速度呈自然指数相关,经验方程相对于经验阵风系数的预报拟合优度提升了59.61%;经验阵风预报方程通过了2018—2019年的数据检验,该方程对1～2级阵风预报偏高,3～5级效果最好,6级阵风的预报偏低;6级以上的阵风等级预报准确率达55.2%。地形摩擦作用在冷空气大风与台风大风过程中尤为重要,这两类过程阵风系数分布类似,但台风带来的动量下传比冷空气更为明显。     

Effects of Thermal Stability and Incoming Boundary-Layer Flow Characteristics on Wind-Turbine Wakes: A Wind-Tunnel Study

Wind-tunnel experiments were carried out to study turbulence statistics in the wake of a model wind turbine placed in a boundary-layer flow under both neutral and stably stratified conditions. High-resolution velocity and temperature measurements, obtained using a customized triple wire (cross-wire and cold wire) anemometer, were used to characterize the mean velocity, turbulence intensity, turbulent fluxes, and spectra at different locations in the wake. The effect of the wake on the turbulence statistics is found to extend as far as 20 rotor diameters downwind of the turbine. The velocity deficit has a nearly axisymmetric shape, which can be approximated by a Gaussian distribution and a power-law decay with distance. This decay in the near-wake region is found to be faster in the stable case. Turbulence intensity distribution is clearly non-axisymmetric due to the non-uniform distribution of the incoming velocity in the boundary layer. In the neutral case, the maximum turbulence intensity is located above the hub height, around the rotor tip location and at a distance of about 4–5.5 rotor diameters, which are common separations between wind turbines in wind farms. The enhancement of turbulence intensity is associated with strong shear and turbulent kinetic energy production in that region. In the stable case, the stronger shear in the incoming flow leads to a slightly stronger and larger region of enhanced turbulence intensity, which extends between 3 and 6 rotor diameters downwind of the turbine location. Power spectra of the streamwise and vertical velocities show a strong signature of the turbine blade tip vortices at the top tip height up to a distance of about 1–2 rotor diameters. This spectral signature is stronger in the vertical velocity component. At longer downwind distances, tip vortices are not evident and the von Kármán formulation agrees well with the measured velocity spectra.