天然气水合物矿藏的分类:从水合物获取天然气产品的重要环节

目前我们对天然气水合物矿藏在自然界中的形成条件和机理以及它们在地质时期中的作用仍不十分清楚,至今对天然气水合物矿藏的寻找以及开发方法并不统一;而天然气水合物矿藏的分类是可能促进解决这些问题的方法之一。已经发展形成的分类方法是根据“地理位置成因”的原则对天然气水合物矿藏进行细分的。地理位置类别有海洋的、“陆地稳定的”与“陆地亚稳定的”;     

沉积物粒度与天然气水合物的依存关系

天然气水合物矿藏的形成与分布除了需要特定的温压条件外,更需要合适的沉积条件。总体来说,粗粒的沉积物易于天然气水合物的储集;但是,在气源非常充足的情况下,细粒的沉积物也可作为天然气水合物的储集体。     

海洋中天然气水合物的成矿机理与资源评价概述

本文综述了近年来国内外关于天然气水合物成矿机理研究的新进展，阐明了作为一种非常规的天然气矿藏，其形成和稳定存在除了需要特定的温、压条件外，更需要合适的成矿地质条件，包括沉积构造环境、充足的气源、有效的运移通道、有效的储集层和保存条件等．文中还介绍了天然气水合物资源评价方法及国外研究者对全球气体水合物中甲烷量的估算值，由于其结果相差几个数量级，表明目前还没有成熟的天然气水合物资源定量评价方法．     

南海北部神狐海域天然气水合物差异性分布的控制因素

南海北部陆坡区具备天然气水合物形成聚集的地质条件,神狐海域的海底沉积层温度和压力条件符合水合物成藏的要求;源岩生烃潜力巨大且烃类运移条件良好,可以为水合物成藏提供充足的气源和通畅的运移通道。然而,钻探结果揭示了神狐海域天然气水合物在相似地质背景地区聚集分布的差异性,其机理及控制因素并不清楚。基于研究区8口钻探井的成藏地质条件,综合对比分析了成功获取及未获取水合物站位处的地震、测井、钻井、地球化学等数据,并以此探究南海北部神狐地区天然气水合物分布不均匀性的控制和影响因素。     

南沙海域天然气水合物地震特征

南沙海域水深为200∽2500m，其中大于500m的水域约50万km^2，该区大部分区域发育沉积盆地，构造类型多样，具有形成天然气水合物的气源、温度及压力条件。根据地质及地球物理调查资料，分析了南沙海域天然气水合物成藏的地质条件及地球物理标志特征，认为南沙海域具备形成天然气水合物矿藏的条件，南沙海槽和南沙中部海域是天然气水合物形成的有利地区。     

海底天然气渗漏系统水合物成藏过程及控制因素

在海底天然气渗漏系统沉淀水合物的动力学基础上,建立了水合物沉淀与分解的化学动力学模型。应用该模型分析了美国墨西哥湾布什山天然气渗漏系统水合物的成藏过程,探讨了水合物沉淀、稳定性影响因素。在渗漏通量为每年400kg·m-2的单个通道中,约需425a才能导致水合物稳定带沉积层约30%孔隙完全被水合物充填,渗漏通道被堵塞,沉淀的水合物在剖面上从稳定带底部向海底趋于富C3+C4。在渗漏通道天然气流量由弱到强再到弱的演化过程中,渗漏速度增大过程中形成的水合物在渗漏速度减小过程中将分解,总量约10%的水合物将被分解。如果分解产生的天然气可快速迁移出渗漏系统,海底温度的升高可引起约40%的水合物在20d内分解,并导致海底渗漏速度的急剧增大。     

天然气水合物的聚集和形成及南海地质条件分析

天然气水合物目前已经成为世界范围的一个研究热点，而我国的天然气水合物研究起步则相对较晚，通过阅读国内外有关文献，总结了天然气水合物在海底的分布特征，聚集和形成机制，产状及其形成机理，甲烷羽的形成过程，天然气水合物在沉积物中的聚集位置通常有两种情况：一是较浅的沉积物（海底以下几米）中，受控于泥底辟，泥火山，断层等；二是较深的沉积物（海底以下几十米，甚至更深）中，受控于流体，当断层延伸至海底时，通常在水合物聚集处的上部发现甲烷羽，天然气以溶解气，游离气或分子扩散的形式运移，在温，压适宜的沉积物中，即水合物稳定带内聚集并形成水合物，水合物的形成过程是：最初形成晶体，呈分散状分布于沉积物中，之后逐渐聚集，生长成结核状，层状，最后形成块状，在细粒的浅层沉积物中，通常以较慢的速度生长，形成分散状的水合物；而在粗粒沉积物中，水合物通常呈填隙状，并且这种产状可能位于较深层位中，我国南海在温度，压力，构造条件，天然气来源等方面都能满足天然气水合物的形成条件，并且在南海也发现了一些水合物存在的标志，如似海底反射层（BSR）以及孔隙水中氯离子浓度的降低。因此，天然气水合物在我国南海海域可能有很好的前景。     

天然气水合物研究的新进展

天然气水合物的调查评价刚刚起步，有关其成藏机理等许多问题有待解决。最近国际上关于天然气水合物资源和成藏机理的研究有新的进展，现根据大量的实际调查资料重新估算了天然气水合物资源量，并认为过去报道的资源量过高；海底天然气水合物的聚集与烃流体的垂向运移有关，泥火山底辟构造控制了海底天然气水合物的聚集和分布；天然气水合物的开采方式与常规油气藏开发不同，宜采用简单加热法、抑制剂法和减压法开采；近期应主要进行海底及浅层的天然气水合物勘探。     

海洋浅表层天然气水合物成藏特征

按照天然气水合物形成的气体疏导方式划分,渗漏系统是海洋浅表层天然气水合物藏形成的主要模式。关键成藏要素包括温压场、气源等,温压场主要控制天然气水合物成藏的平面分布和纵向分布;海底热流低值区有利于形成天然气水合物,但在海底热流超高的海域,只要有充足的气源供给,在高甲烷通量区深海浅表层也可以形成天然气水合物藏,而且往往与泥火山、气烟囱等特殊地质体伴生,形成致密的数米厚层状天然气水合物藏。浅表层天然气水合物藏气源主要是有机热解成因气,一般其深部均发育有成熟的含油气盆地,有烃源层广泛分布,并且干酪根发生过明确的生烃过程,形成的热解甲烷气通过断层、气烟囱等破碎带垂向运移通道渗漏上升,在温压场控制的相平衡区形成天然气水合物藏,因此,海底热流值较高的海盆也是浅表层天然气水合物藏形成的有利海域。     

南海北部陆坡区水合物发育的水深、热流特征及盖层控制作用模拟

南海北部陆坡区是中国最具潜力的天然气水合物聚集区。通过对研究区似海底反射层（BSR）、水深及热流值分布进行交会,得到了水深、热流双因素对天然气水合物形成的共同控制机理。研究认为,热流值中等（70～83mW／m^2）的地区最有利于天然气水合物的形成和聚集,热流值升高,天然气水合物形成的水深有总体增大的趋势。另外,天然气水合物的形成也需要良好的盖层条件。模拟了当上覆泥质沉积物盖层厚度不同时,天然气水合物形成所需的最低水深,并对不同泥质沉积物盖层厚度对天然气水合物稳定带底界面和厚度的影响做了研究和探讨。当泥质沉积物盖层的厚度越大时,天然气水合物形成的水深可以更浅;当泥质沉积物盖层厚度较小时,天然气水合物的形成则需要更大的水深。另外,当水深越大时,天然气水合物稳定带的底界面（BGHSZ）越深,天然气水合物稳定带的厚度越大。     

Numerical studies of methane production from Class 1 gas hydrate accumulations enhanced with carbon dioxide injection

Class 1 gas hydrate accumulations are characterized by a permeable hydrate-bearing interval overlying a permeable interval with mobile gas, sandwiched between two impermeable intervals. Depressurization-induced dissociation is currently the favored technology for producing gas from Class 1 gas hydrate accumulations. The depressurization production technology requires heat transfer from the surrounding environment to sustain dissociation as the temperature drops toward the hydrate equilibrium point and leaves the reservoir void of gas hydrate. Production of gas hydrate accumulations by exchanging carbon dioxide with methane in the clathrate structure has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments and proposed as a field-scale technology. The carbon dioxide exchange technology has the potential for yielding higher production rates and mechanically stabilizing the reservoir by maintaining hydrate saturations. We used numerical simulation to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of using carbon dioxide injection to enhance the production of methane from Class 1 gas hydrate accumulations. Numerical simulations in this study were primarily concerned with the mechanisms and approaches of carbon dioxide injection to investigate whether methane production could be enhanced through this approach. To avoid excessive simulation execution times, a five-spot well pattern with a 500-m well spacing was approximated using a two-dimensional domain having well boundaries on the vertical sides and impermeable boundaries on the horizontal sides. Impermeable over- and under burden were included to account for heat transfer into the production interval. Simulation results indicate that low injection pressures can be used to reduce secondary hydrate formation and that direct contact of injected carbon dioxide with the methane hydrate present in the formation is limited due to bypass through the higher permeability gas zone.     

Acoustic evidence of shallow gas accumulations and active pockmarks in the ?zmir Gulf, Aegean sea

Based on high-resolution Chirp seismic, multibeam bathymetry and side scan sonar data collected in the ?zmir Gulf, Aegean Sea in 2008 and 2010, gas-related structures have been identified, which can be classified into three categories: (1) shallow gas accumulations and gas chimneys, (2) mud diapirs, and (3) active and inactive pockmarks. On the Chirp profiles, shallow gas accumulations were observed along the northern coastline of the outer ?zmir Gulf at 3-20 m below the seabed. They appear as acoustic turbidity zones and are interpreted as biogenic gas accumulations produced in organic-rich highstand fan sediments from the Gediz River. The diapiric structures are interpreted as shale or mud diapirs formed under lateral compression due to regional counter-clockwise rotation of Anatolian microplate. Furthermore, the sedimentary structure at the flanks suggests a continuous upward movement of the diapirs. Several pockmarks exist close to fault traces to the east of Hekim Island; most of them were associated with acoustic plumes indicating active degassing during the survey period in 2008. Another Chirp survey was carried out just over these plumes in 2010 to demonstrate if the gas seeps were still active. The surveys indicate that the gas seep is an ongoing process in the gulf. Based on the Chirp data, we proposed that the pockmark formation in the area can be explained by protracted seep model, whereby sediment erosion and re-distribution along pockmark walls result from ongoing (or long lasting) seepage of fluids over long periods of time. The existence of inactive pockmarks in the vicinity, however, implies that gas seepage may eventually cease or that it is periodic. Most of the active pockmarks are located over the fault planes, likely indicating that the gas seepage is controlled by active faulting.     

Potential map of gas hydrate formation in Caspian Sea based on physicochemical stability evaluation of methane hydrate

Preliminary studies of Caspian Sea have shown the possibility of gas hydrate accumulations, because of suitable physicochemical conditions, existence of clayey deposits, and high concentrations of organic matter. Studies have indicated that gas hydrates are mainly composed of methane. Therefore, based on physicochemical equations for methane hydrate stability in different pressure, temperature, and salinity, this study was designed to calculate the potential of gas hydrate formation in the Caspian Sea basin. For this, data of more than 600 locations were analyzed and in each location, upper and lower limits of methane hydrate formation zone were calculated. Then, the zoning maps of upper and lower limits were prepared which can be useful for exploring the gas hydrate as an energy source or predicting gas hydrate hazards. According to the calculations and maps, methane hydrate formation in Caspian Sea, theoretically, can take place from near the seabed to 4000 and 2500 m beneath the sea surface when low and high geothermal gradient are supposed, respectively. By comparing the results with gas hydrate zones revealed in geophysical profiles, it has been shown that, in Caspian Sea, gas hydrates probably accumulate near the lower limit when a high geothermal gradient is assumed.     

Investigation of microbial influences on seafloor gas-hydrate formations

Microbial communities flourish at gas hydrate occurrences in ocean sediments. Studies are reported in this paper on the laboratory production, separation, characterization and hydrate catalysis of biosurfactants from cultures of the Bacillus subtilis bacterium associated with Gulf of Mexico gas-hydrate accumulations. The B. subtilis bacterium from ATCC 21332 species was cultured anaerobically with glucose as carbon-source to produce surfactin, one of the more potent surface active agents known. The surface-active agent was removed from the broth in foam created by bubbling inert gas through the mixture, and biosurfactant was then recovered from the collapsed-foam distilled water solution by acid precipitation and dichloromethane extraction. According to HPLC spectra, five surfactin isomers were identified in the sample of laboratory-generated biosurfactant. Recovered surfactin was then used to perform gas-hydrate formation studies in porous media saturated with the surfactin-water solution. Gas-hydrate induction time and formation rate determinations showed that the anaerobically-produced biosurfactants catalyzed hydrate formation markedly. The tests suggest prolific surfactin production by the B. subtilis bacterium and of other species under prevailing anaerobic conditions around seafloor gas hydrates that promotes hydrate formation and the propensity of the bioproduct to be dispersed in the porous media by natural gas vents.     

Preliminary assessment of resources and economic potential of individual gas hydrate accumulations in the Gulf of Mexico continental slope

Some global estimates suggest that gas hydrates represent the largest reservoir of fossil fuel. However, only a few studies of the resource and economic potential of individual gas hydrate accumulations exist. Here we estimate the volume of hydrate-bound gas at GC (Green Canyon) blocks 184/185, GC 234/235, GB (Garden Banks) 388, MC (Mississippi Canyon) 798/842, GC 204, MC 852/853, and AT (Atwater Valley) 425/426 sites in the Gulf of Mexico at water depths ∼500–2000 m. The structural accumulations may contain from 4.7×10⁸ to 1.3×10¹¹ m³ of gas at standard temperature and pressure. The resources in individual gas hydrate accumulations are comparable (by volume) with the reserves in very small to major conventional gas fields. Various geologic, technologic, and economic factors affect the economic potential of studied accumulations. The MC 852/853 appears to be characterized by the most favorable combination of these factors, and thus is suggested to have the highest economic potential. The economic potential of gas hydrate accumulations at GC 204, GB 388, and AT 425/426 sites is ranked as ‘average’. Gas hydrate accumulations at GC 234/235, GC 184/185, and MC 798/842 sites contain only small volumes of hydrate-bound gas, and likely have no economic potential. Future gas hydrate research should focus on the detailed study of large structural gas hydrate accumulations from which gas may be profitably recovered (e.g. the MC 852/853 site).     

Gas hydrate and free gas indications within the Cenozoic succession of the Bjørnøya Basin, western Barents Sea

Multichannel seismic data, containing high-amplitude reflections from Cenozoic sediments of the Bjørnøya Basin, southwestern Barents Sea, have been studied, inferring the existence of gas hydrate and free gas. The Cenozoic succession comprises Late Palaeocene and Early Eocene claystones and siltstones and locally also some sandstones overlain by Late Pleistocene glaciogenic sediments. The inferred gas hydrate and free gas accumulations are mainly located in the vicinity of larger faults which can be followed up to base Tertiary level, and which seem to have controlled the geographical distribution of the accumulations. Free gas accumulations are inferred to occur most frequently within the Late Palaeocene strata that occur below the gas hydrate stability zone, and indicate that relatively small gas leakages from deeper accumulations have dominated. Larger gas leakages have probably led to gas migration up into the gas hydrate stability zone and, together with the increasing thickness of the hydrate stability zone towards the north, control the distribution of the suspected gas hydrates. The inferred gas leakages are closely related to the Cenozoic evolution of the Barents Sea, and are probably caused by gas expansion due to the removal of up to 1 km of sediments from the Barents Sea shelf and/or reservoir tilting during the Late Cenozoic glaciations which affected this area.     

Seismic imaging of migration pathways by advanced attribute analysis,Alaminos Canyon 21, Gulf of Mexico

Potential accumulations of gas hydrates in Alaminos Canyon Block 21 (AC21) in the Gulf of Mexico are thought to occur in a shallow sand-rich interval, stratigraphically separated from sources of free gas below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BGHSZ), by an intervening thick layer of clay- and silt-rich sediments. Availability of sufficient gas charge from depth, in addition to local biogenic sourcing is considered key to the formation of gas hydrates in the GHSZ. Implicitly, a detailed understanding of geometries associated with fault and fracture networks in relation to potential gas migration pathways can provide additional confidence that seismic amplitude anomalies are related to gas hydrate accumulations. Delineation of fault and fracture systems from high resolution seismic data in and below the gas hydrates stability zone (GHSZ) was performed using an automated algorithm—Ant Tracking. The capturing of small-scale detail has particular significance at AC21, revealing a pervasive network of typically small-extent discontinuities, indicative of fracturing, throughout this intervening clay- and silt-rich layer of mass-transport deposits (MTDs). Ant Tracking features appear to correlate, to some extent, with potential gas hydrate accumulations, supporting the concept that fracturing possibly provides migration pathways albeit via a tortuous, complex path. This study demonstrates that the Ant Tracking attribute, in conjunction with detailed seismic interpretation and analysis, can provide valuable evidence of potential gas migration pathways.     

A natural laboratory for shallow gas: the Rías Baixas (NW Spain)

Interpretation of acoustic seismic records have allowed mapping of shallow gas accumulations and gas escape features in the Rías Baixas. X-ray photographs and voids of cores are semi-direct evidence of gassy sediments. Mapping of fluid-escape areas shows that these are related to the gas accumulations or at the intersections of faults. Analyses (GC-MS) of bubble samples collected in Simón Bay (Ría de Vigo) and across the whole ría confirm the presence of methane. The spatial distribution of gas escapes/accumulations and their vertical variations are interpreted as evidence of sedimentary facies control. The appearance of authigenic minerals (gypsum, pyrite and aragonite) and microbiological activity related to the seal facies are taken as evidence of the biogeochemical coupling processes. It is evident that these shallow-water coastal environments make significant contributions to the methane budget of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. It is also suggested that microbiological activity is favoured by gas escapes.     

Depositional characteristics and accumulation model of gas hydrates in northern South China Sea

The South China Sea (SCS) shows favorable conditions for gas hydrate accumulation and exploration prospects. Bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) are widely distributed in the SCS. Using seismic and sequence stratigraphy, the spatial distribution of BSRs has been determined in three sequences deposited since the Late Miocene. The features of gas hydrate accumulations in northern SCS were systematically analyzed by an integrated analysis of gas source conditions, migration pathways, heat flow values, occurrence characteristics, and depositional conditions (including depositional facies, rates of deposition, sand content, and lithological features) as well as some depositional bodies (structural slopes, slump blocks, and sediment waves). This research shows that particular geological controls are important for the presence of BSRs in the SCS, not so much the basic thermodynamic controls such as temperature, pressure and a gas source. Based on this, a typical depositional accumulation model has been established. This model summarizes the distribution of each depositional system in the continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise, and also shows the typical elements of gas hydrate accumulations. BSRs appear to commonly occur more in slope-break zones, deep-water gravity flows, and contourites. The gas hydrate-bearing sediments in the Shenhu drilling area mostly contain silt or clay, with a silt content of about 70%. In the continental shelf, BSRs are laterally continuous, and the key to gas hydrate formation and accumulation lies in gas transportation and migration conditions. In the continental slope, a majority of the BSRs are associated with zones of steep and rough relief with long-term alternation of uplift and subsidence. Rapid sediment unloading can provide a favorable sedimentary reservoir for gas hydrates. In the continental rise, BSRs occur in the sediments of submarine fans, turbidity currents.