Empirical Formula of Shear Strength of Rock Fractures Based on 3D Morphology Parameters

The prime objective of this work is to provide a reference to predict the peak shear strength of rock fractures. The paper studied some shear properties of rock fractures and proposed an empirical formula for the peak shear strength of rock fractures based on 3D morphology parameters. The rock fractures were induced in cylindrical sandstone and marble specimens by means of indirect tension. A rock direct shear apparatus (RDS-200) was adopted to conduct direct shear tests on five groups of rock fractures under different levels of normal load. Before the direct shear test, 3D morphology parameters of rock fracture surfaces were obtained using a 3D optical scanner. By analyses of direct shear test data, the relationships between peak shear strength, peak shear displacement, peak dilatancy angle, residual friction coefficient and peak normal stress were found. According to the evolution trends of peak shear strength and peak dilatancy angle along with the normal stress, an empirical formula was proposed to predict the peak shear strength of rock fractures in both sliding and cutting failure modes considering the 3D morphology parameters of rock fracture surfaces. The empirical formula could be commonly used for different types (sandstone and marble) and grain sizes (powder-grained, fine-grained, medium-grained and coarse-grained) of rock fractures.     

离散裂隙网络对页岩气井产能影响的数值模拟

页岩作为典型的非常规储层,基质孔隙小,渗透率极低,水平井多级水力压裂为其商业开发的主要手段。准确模拟页岩气产能,应同时考虑水力裂隙和天然裂隙的渗流。基于离散裂隙模型和等效连续模型建立页岩气渗流数学模型,利用有限元分析方法进行数值求解,研究不同走向裂隙组对页岩气井产能的影响。研究认为,页岩基质为气体的生产提供了主要气源,天然裂隙作为渗流的主要通道,将气体输送到水力裂缝,进而到达井筒。模拟结果表征,离散裂隙的渗流特征对于页岩气井的产能有重要影响。根据页岩储层的天然裂隙走向,可以优化相应的水平井方位。对于二维离散裂隙网络模型,水平井沿着2个裂隙组夹角的平分线更有利于生产。     

针对储层裂缝检测的三维P波地震采集设计参数分析

理论和实践表明,垂直定向排列的裂缝能够诱导方位各向异性,三维P波地震是一种经济有效的裂缝勘探方法。合理的三维勘探有利于从三维地震数据中提取和增强有效的属性参数,来表征方位各向异性,达到检测和预测储层裂缝的目的。这里通过综述目前常用的纵波裂缝检测技术,结合部分实际数据,总结了三维P波采集方案设计的一些基本原则,为储层裂缝检测提供了野外设计方面的参考。     

致密低渗透砂岩储层多尺度天然裂缝表征方法

本文利用地表露头、岩芯、测井、三维地震和微观分析资料,根据多尺度裂缝的发育特征及不同资料的精度,探讨了多尺度裂缝的表征方法。致密低渗透砂岩储层发育多尺度天然裂缝,根据天然裂缝规模以及限制天然裂缝扩展延伸的岩石力学层界面,将天然裂缝分为大尺度裂缝、中尺度裂缝、小尺度裂缝和微尺度裂缝4级,不同尺度裂缝的发育特征存在较大差异。其中大尺度裂缝主要应用三维地震资料的叠后属性进行检测和表征;中小尺度裂缝在单井上可以应用岩芯、成像测井和常规测井相结合的方法进行表征,在平面上采用基于地质和测井约束的三维地震叠前各向异性分析以及储层地质力学相结合的方法进行综合预测和评价;微尺度裂缝一般应用铸体薄片、普通薄片、扫描电镜和三维CT扫描等微观分析方法进行观察描述,通过主控因素约束的方法进行预测。利用本文提出的多尺度裂缝表征方法实现了对鄂尔多斯盆地西南部致密砂岩储层多尺度裂缝表征,可为其它致密低渗透砂岩储层多尺度裂缝表征提供借鉴。     

致密低渗透砂岩储层多尺度天然裂缝表征方法

本文利用地表露头、岩芯、测井、三维地震和微观分析资料,根据多尺度裂缝的发育特征及不同资料的精度,探讨了多尺度裂缝的表征方法。致密低渗透砂岩储层发育多尺度天然裂缝,根据天然裂缝规模以及限制天然裂缝扩展延伸的岩石力学层界面,将天然裂缝分为大尺度裂缝、中尺度裂缝、小尺度裂缝和微尺度裂缝4级,不同尺度裂缝的发育特征存在较大差异。其中大尺度裂缝主要应用三维地震资料的叠后属性进行检测和表征;中小尺度裂缝在单井上可以应用岩芯、成像测井和常规测井相结合的方法进行表征,在平面上采用基于地质和测井约束的三维地震叠前各向异性分析以及储层地质力学相结合的方法进行综合预测和评价;微尺度裂缝一般应用铸体薄片、普通薄片、扫描电镜和三维CT扫描等微观分析方法进行观察描述,通过主控因素约束的方法进行预测。利用本文提出的多尺度裂缝表征方法实现了对鄂尔多斯盆地西南部致密砂岩储层多尺度裂缝表征,可为其它致密低渗透砂岩储层多尺度裂缝表征提供借鉴。     

Polyaxial stress-dependent permeability of a three-dimensional fractured rock layer

A study about the influence of polyaxial (true-triaxial) stresses on the permeability of a three-dimensional (3D) fractured rock layer is presented. The 3D fracture system is constructed by extruding a two-dimensional (2D) outcrop pattern of a limestone bed that exhibits a ladder structure consisting of a “through-going” joint set abutted by later-stage short fractures. Geomechanical behaviour of the 3D fractured rock in response to in-situ stresses is modelled by the finite-discrete element method, which can capture the deformation of matrix blocks, variation of stress fields, reactivation of pre-existing rough fractures and propagation of new cracks. A series of numerical simulations is designed to load the fractured rock using various polyaxial in-situ stresses and the stress-dependent flow properties are further calculated. The fractured layer tends to exhibit stronger flow localisation and higher equivalent permeability as the far-field stress ratio is increased and the stress field is rotated such that fractures are preferentially oriented for shearing. The shear dilation of pre-existing fractures has dominant effects on flow localisation in the system, while the propagation of new fractures has minor impacts. The role of the overburden stress suggests that the conventional 2D analysis that neglects the effect of the out-of-plane stress (perpendicular to the bedding interface) may provide indicative approximations but not fully capture the polyaxial stress-dependent fracture network behaviour. The results of this study have important implications for understanding the heterogeneous flow of geological fluids (e.g. groundwater, petroleum) in subsurface and upscaling permeability for large-scale assessments.     

Simulation of non‐planar three‐dimensional hydraulic fracture propagation

Hydraulic fracturing is the method of choice to enhance reservoir permeability and well efficiency for extraction of shale gas. Multi‐stranded non‐planar hydraulic fractures are often observed in stimulation sites. Non‐planar fractures propagating from wellbores inclined from the direction of maximum horizontal stress have also been reported. The pressure required to propagate non‐planar fractures is in general higher than in the case of planar fractures. Current computational methods for the simulation of hydraulic fractures generally assume single, symmetric, and planar crack geometries. In order to better understand hydraulic fracturing in complex‐layered naturally fractured reservoirs, fully 3D models need to be developed. In this paper, we present simulations of 3D non‐planar fracture propagation using an adaptive generalized FEM. This method greatly facilitates the discretization of complex 3D fractures, as finite element faces are not required to fit the crack surfaces. A solution strategy for fully automatic propagation of arbitrary 3D cracks is presented. The fracture surface on which pressure is applied is also automatically updated at each step. An efficient technique to numerically integrate boundary conditions on crack surfaces is also proposed and implemented. Strongly graded localized refinement and analytical asymptotic expansions are used as enrichment functions in the neighborhood of fracture fronts to increase the computational accuracy and efficiency of the method. Stress intensity factors with pressure on crack faces are extracted using the contour integral method. Various non‐planar crack geometries are investigated to demonstrate the robustness and flexibility of the proposed simulation methodology. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

层状矿体等高线离散化后的四面体建模

基于不规则四面体的三维实体建模方法具有很多优点,但在层状矿体的建模中,该方法却不能准确地描述其层状界面。根据层状矿体建模数据的特点,先将层状矿体的等高线进行等距离散化,再建立不规则四面体三维实体模型,并为该方法设计由点、面和四面体组成的逻辑模型结构。该方法用VC++.net编程得以实现,并使用内蒙某煤矿的实际数据,建立了相应的矿床三维实体模型。实践表明,通过离散化等高线后建立的层状矿体四面体模型,能够准确反映出层状矿体的层状界面,实现对层状矿体的三维实体建模。     

基于GIS的岩石裂隙空间分布模式研究

文中以甘肃北山花岗岩中发育的构造裂隙(主要指节理尺度)为研究对象,应用地质统计分析理论,以裂隙面密度P21 作为地质统计分析的区域性变量,探索花岗岩岩体裂隙空间分布模式。结果表明:甘肃北山芨芨槽候选场址区域内花岗岩岩体裂隙空间分布具有明显的各向异性特征,变异主轴方向明显; 变异主轴区域内的裂隙分组地质统计特征显示,区域内第1分组裂隙并非是传统意义上的均匀随机分布,而是具有明显的空穴效应特征,应该在三维裂隙网络建模工作中予以考虑。本文在考虑本组裂隙空穴效应特征基础上,针对三维裂隙网络建模方法提出了新的建议。     

高陡岩质斜坡的结构面非接触式采集技术与三维裂隙网络模拟研究

本文分别以非接触式测量与三维裂隙网络模拟技术对汶川县绵虒镇大溪沟沟口高陡斜坡的结构面系统进行了深入研究。以无人机、数字近景摄影测量与三维激光扫描方法建立了现场斜坡的三维DEM模型并识别与解译了斜坡的结构面系统。尤其是采用无人机与近景摄影测量技术,识别并解译了整体斜坡的长大控制性结构面与坡面上的6663条随机构造结构面。基于以上数据,本文提出了一种适用于高陡斜坡分析的超大窗口三维裂隙网络模拟方法,采用概率统计与空间几何推导的方法,建立了岩体三维结构面的直径、产状与密度计算方法。这种方法更加简便且针对性强,现场验证也表明其具有较高的模拟精度。     

中国海相碳酸盐岩油气资源、勘探重大科技问题及对策

碳酸盐岩储层裂缝发育、非均质性强,单一测井或地震方法识别裂缝存在局限性,为此,提出了基于井震裂缝识别敏感性参数模型的碳酸盐岩储层裂缝预测方法。基于岩石物理分析,根据成像测井资料以及井点裂缝解释成果,建立了分层段测井井点裂缝识别敏感性参数(FISP)模型;以基于地质和测井多井解释结果划分的优质裂缝储层为判别依据,优选井旁道地震属性,以测井井点裂缝识别敏感性参数为参照,构建了基于井旁道地震属性的裂缝识别敏感性参数(FISPSA)模型;建立了基于测井、地震裂缝识别敏感性参数模型的储层裂缝预测技术路线和方法流程,实现了裂缝发育三维地震预测,形成了适用于潜山碳酸盐岩油藏的基于井震裂缝识别敏感性参数模型的三维地震裂缝预测方法。渤海湾盆地胜利油田埕岛潜山油藏实际应用取得了与实钻裂缝吻合一致的预测效果,表明了基于井震裂缝识别敏感性参数模型的三维地震裂缝预测方法的可行性。研究成果在同类地区裂缝性潜山油藏裂缝检测具有广泛的推广应用价值。

     

Modeling three‐dimensional hydraulic fracture propagation using virtual multidimensional internal bonds

Propagation of fractures, especially those emanating from wellbores and closed natural fractures, often involves Mode I and Mode II, and at times Mode III, posing significant challenges to its numerical simulation. When an embedded inclined fracture is subjected to compression, the fracture edge is constrained by the surrounding materials so that its true propagation pattern cannot be simulated by 2D models. In this article, a virtual multidimensional internal bond (VMIB) model is presented to simulate three‐dimensional (3D) fracture propagation. The VMIB model bridges the processes of macro fracture and micro bond rupture. The macro 3D constitutive relation in VMIB is derived from the 1D bond in the micro scale and is implemented in a 3D finite element method. To represent the contact and friction between fracture surfaces, a 3D element partition method is employed. The model is applied to simulate fracture propagation and coalescence in typical laboratory experiments and is used to analyze the propagation of an embedded fracture. Simulation results for single and multiple fractures illustrate 3D features of the tensile and compressive fracture propagation, especially the propagation of a Mode III fracture. The results match well with the experimental observation, suggesting that the presented method can capture the main features of 3D fracture propagation and coalescence. Moreover, by developing an algorithm for applying pressure on the fracture surfaces, propagation of a natural fracture is also simulated. The result illustrates an interesting and important phenomenon of Mode III fracture propagation, namely the fracture front segmentation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

非饱和裂隙岩体渗流的统计模型研究方法

常规方法研究非饱和裂隙介质往往采用宏观连续体的概念,然而现场试验证明,非饱和裂隙岩体中的渗流具有相当的非均质性。天然裂隙岩体的非饱和渗流是发生在三维裂隙网络中的多场非等温流,要在不完整的信息基础上刻画和表现介质的不均匀性,通常借助随机模拟的手段。将三维裂隙系统近似为概化的二维非均匀多孔介质的二维平面裂隙。采用模拟退火法将取自各种来源的信息资料通过建立适当的目标函数汇集至模型之中,以此模拟裂隙的空间特征。     

应用离散元强度折减对复杂边坡进行稳定性分析

介绍了离散元（DEM）及强度折减法基本原理,利用3DEC软件结合强度折减法对某水电站高边坡进行稳定性分析。对岩体强度参数进行折减,以关键点位移与时间关系曲线发散时的折减系数作为边坡安全系数,根据位移矢量图确定滑面和破坏形态。通过与Dijkstra极限平衡有限元法及Sarma法的计算结果对比,验证该方法的可靠性。在二维计算基础上建立并简化三维模型,模拟边坡三维应力场。结合工程关注区域的应力及位移趋势,采用3DEC中的辅助节理截取典型坡段单宽模型,在已有的三维应力场的基础上对其进行强度折减,弥补了二维强度折减未考虑三维应力场对边坡稳定性影响的不足,把握了工程重点及力学特性,为类似工程提供了一种合理高效的稳定性分析手段。     

Limiting equilibrium versus BS3D analysis of a tetrahedral rock block

In order to analyze the stability of a 3D rock block using a limiting equilibrium method, some simplifications must be introduced, such as neglecting the effects of deformability of the rock block, fractures, and the surrounding rock mass, the progressive failure and the mobilization of shear strength of fractures, and changes in in situ stresses with block displacement. These limitations may cause some errors when calculating the factor of safety of the block. This paper quantifies the error caused by these simplifications comparing the results against those obtained with a numerical method (BS3D). In addition, the effects of the normal stiffness of the fractures, dilatancy, the tunnel radius, and the block size on stability of the tetrahedron are investigated using the numerical tool to demonstrate the importance of the effects eliminated by the limiting equilibrium approach. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantifying fracture geometry with X-ray tomography: Technique of Iterative Local Thresholding (TILT) for 3D image segmentation

This paper presents a new method—the Technique of Iterative Local Thresholding (TILT)—for processing 3D X-ray computed tomography (xCT) images for visualization and quantification of rock fractures. The TILT method includes the following advancements. First, custom masks are generated by a fracture-dilation procedure, which significantly amplifies the fracture signal on the intensity histogram used for local thresholding. Second, TILT is particularly well suited for fracture characterization in granular rocks because the multi-scale Hessian fracture (MHF) filter has been incorporated to distinguish fractures from pores in the rock matrix. Third, TILT wraps the thresholding and fracture isolation steps in an optimized iterative routine for binary segmentation, minimizing human intervention and enabling automated processing of large 3D datasets. As an illustrative example, we applied TILT to 3D xCT images of reacted and unreacted fractured limestone cores. Other segmentation methods were also applied to provide insights regarding variability in image processing. The results show that TILT significantly enhanced separability of grayscale intensities, outperformed the other methods in automation, and was successful in isolating fractures from the porous rock matrix. Because the other methods are more likely to misclassify fracture edges as void and/or have limited capacity in distinguishing fractures from pores, those methods estimated larger fracture volumes (up to 80 %), surface areas (up to 60 %), and roughness (up to a factor of 2). These differences in fracture geometry would lead to significant disparities in hydraulic permeability predictions, as determined by 2D flow simulations.     

济阳坳陷四扣洼陷泥质岩裂缝储层预测研究

通过对济阳坳陷四扣洼陷及郭局子地区泥质岩储层的裂缝类型、识别特征进行的研究，认为影响本区裂缝发育程度的因素是区域构造应力及构造部位、岩性、岩相、岩层厚度、埋深及地层压力。并在此基础上建立了地质模型、力学模型和数学模型，运用三维有限元方法对四扣洼陷构造裂缝储层的分布进行了预测。通过预测，提出了研究区裂缝发育在平面上具有不均匀性、连片性差、与断层关系密切的特点，进一步指出了罗42－罗48井区等8个区带为裂缝发育的地区。这项研究不仅对研究区泥岩油气勘探，而且对济阳坳陷及类似地区的泥岩油气勘探有重要指导和启示意义。     

基于离散元法的水力压裂数值模拟

不同条件下水压裂隙的发展特性对有效开采页岩气具有重要的指导作用。针对岩体在微观上为颗粒和孔隙的结构系统,提出离散元水力压裂数值模拟方法,离散元能量转化和能量守恒计算方法,建立了相应的三维离散元模型。采用自主研发的三维离散元模拟软件Mat DEM3D,通过控制模型的竖向应变与颗粒直径,来模拟地层中的应力与压裂速率的变化。模拟结果表明:(1)水力压裂产生裂隙的数量和方向受岩石的各向异性,压力状态和变化速率所影响。(2)裂隙在压缩波传播时发展,当水压力高速增加时,诱发的裂隙数量增多,并且有效能量(断裂热)百分比也随之增加,压裂作用也变得更明显。(3)当竖向应变为零时,50%的裂隙呈垂直状态,当竖向应变为-1×10-4时,裂隙趋于沿着最大压力方向发展,竖向裂隙的百分率增大。数值模拟和能量分析为定量地研究岩石水力压裂过程提供了一个新的方法。     

AutoCAD三维模型在大型洞室块体稳定性评价中的应用

以某大型水电站为例,阐明了AutoCAD三维实体模型在地下洞室块体稳定性分析中的应用.首先采用Au协CAD软件建立地下洞室群与周边断裂的三维实体模型,通过沿洞室拱顶和边墙的剖切,即可获得各断裂在洞室拱顶及边墙的确定位置信息,在此基础上进行可能滑动块体的检索,进行了确定性块体稳定性评价,为设计、施工提供依据.     

Experimental research on three dimensional flow characteristics of multiple horizontal fractures utilizing an innovative experiment apparatus

This paper presents an innovative apparatus of laboratory core flooding experiment that utilizing a large vat-shaped core container (Φ330?×?300 mm) and a big size artificial core (200?×?200?×?100 mm) with two horizontal artificial fractures inside. Ten detection sensors were deployed inside the core and connected to electronic pressure gauges, which can capture pressure dynamic data. A computer program module was developed to receive and visualize the pressure data, generating pressure contours, streamlines, and three dimension (3D) pressure distributions inside the core. Completely different from conventional core flooding experiments that utilizing small core samples or full diameter cores and being restricted to simulating one dimension (1D) or two dimension (2D) flow, this experiment apparatus is able to conduct a real 3D flow simulation that a well produces by multiple horizontal fractures. The superposition effect, generated when simulating production by dual fractures, is revealed by the occurrence of pressure contours becoming flat and the existence of a stagnant zone between the two fractures. And it is found that the superposition effect has a dominant influence on pressure drops at two separate points inside the core, which weakens the pressure difference caused by the minor distance difference between these two points and the producing fractures. Besides, it is also noticed that the superposition effect does not extend the pressure drop zone, but only deepens it. Meanwhile, gravity influence is observed that the lower fracture generates a sharper shape of pressure contours than the upper fracture does, and some streamlines above the midpoint between the two fractures are bending to the lower fracture. Moreover, the limitations of the pressure sensors utilized here were discussed, and apparatus improvement and sensor deployment strategy were proposed for further researches. This experiment can be viewed as an experience and a valuable reference for the following researches. Combined with other core flooding experiments, it is reasonable to believe that applying this innovative experiment apparatus not only artificial fracturing and fracture closure can be simulated but also current core flooding experiments of other fluids will also be able to investigate 3D flow characteristics and obtain richer experiment data, including displacement by carbon dioxide, nitrogen, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) fluids like foam, and alkali-surfactant-polymer (ASP) system.