Coupled Numerical Evaluations of the Geomechanical Interactions Between a Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation and a Natural Fracture System in Shale Formations

Due to the low permeability of many shale reservoirs, multi-stage hydraulic fracturing in horizontal wells is used to increase the productive, stimulated reservoir volume. However, each created hydraulic fracture alters the stress field around it, and subsequent fractures are affected by the stress field from previous fractures. The results of a numerical evaluation of the effect of stress field changes (stress shadowing), as a function of natural fracture and geomechanical properties, are presented, including a detailed evaluation of natural fracture shear failure (and, by analogy, the generated microseismicity) due to a created hydraulic fracture. The numerical simulations were performed using continuum and discrete element modeling approaches in both mechanical-only and fully coupled, hydro-mechanical modes. The results show the critical impacts that the stress field changes from a created hydraulic fracture have on the shear of the natural fracture system, which in-turn, significantly affects the success of the hydraulic fracture stimulation. Furthermore, the results provide important insight into: the role of completion design (stage spacing) and operational parameters (rate, viscosity, etc.) on the possibility of enhancing the stimulation of the natural fracture network (‘complexity’); the mechanisms that generate the microseismicity that occurs during a hydraulic fracture stimulation; and the interpretation of the generated microseismicity in relation to the volume of stimulated reservoir formation.     

不同尺度岩体结构面对页岩气储层水力压裂裂缝扩展的影响

储层岩体中的天然结构面对水力压裂缝网改造具有重要的影响。本文采用真实破裂过程分析软件RFPA2D-Flow,在考虑岩体非均质性和岩体渗流-应力-损伤破裂特性的基础上,对不同尺度天然结构面影响的水力压裂裂缝扩展与演化行为进行了模拟分析和讨论,研究结果表明:（1）当水力裂缝遇天然非闭合裂隙时,在水力裂缝靠近非闭合裂隙区间形成拉张应力区,水力裂缝与区间非闭合裂隙间微元体累进性张拉破坏是导致水力裂缝与非闭合裂隙贯通的主要机制;（2）层理等优势结构对水力压裂裂缝扩展及缝网形态影响十分显著,当最大主应力方向与层理面走向小角度相交时,层理结构面对水力裂隙的扩展起主要作用,当最大主应力方向与层理面走向大角度相交时,最大主压应力与层理面共同对缝网扩展起主导作用,随着优势结构面的增多和差应力的增大,水力压裂形成的缝网范围和复杂性程度随之增大;（3）储层水力压裂是一种局部范围内的短暂动力扰动过程,尽管断层的存在可以极大地影响水力裂缝的扩展模式,增大水力裂隙扩展高度,但相比于储层埋深,水力压裂对断层封闭性的破坏范围和断层活动性的扰动程度十分有限。     

Laboratory investigation of hydraulic fracture propagation using real-time ultrasonic measurement in shale formations with random natural fractures

The significance of natural fractures in unconventional shale hydrocarbon formations has opened new research frontiers in hydraulic fracturing. Among many of its unique contributions to gas production, the interaction between natural fractures and hydraulic fractures has long been experimentally and computationally investigated. Here, we experimentally investigated the evolution of the fracturing network with a self-developed ultrasonic testing system. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the propagation of hydraulic fracture in naturally fractured model blocks that contain random micro-fractures. Our analysis suggests that the total fracture width obtained by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) can reflect the dynamic evolution of the fracturing network. The nonlinear fracturing network evolution process is closely related to the variation of the total fracture width. It is suggested from the total fracture width that the maximum fracture network can be realized with greater natural fracture density, large injection rate, and smaller stress ratio. The study presents a better insight into the response of random naturally fractured shale formation under hydraulic fracturing treatment by analyzing the variation of UPV in real time.     

Optimization and Evaluation of Multiple Hydraulically Fractured Parameters in Random Naturally Fractured Model Blocks: An Experimental Investigation

Researchers have recently realized that the non-tectonic natural fractures are developed in shale formations and significant for the exploitation of shale gas. Studies have shown that the tectonic fractures in naturally fractured reservoirs have influences on the maximization of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) during hydraulic fracturing. However, the effect of the non-tectonic randomly natural fractures on the fracturing network propagation is not well understood. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the evolution of fracturing network in naturally fractured formations with specimens that contain non-tectonic random fractures. The influences of the dominating factors were studied and analyzed, with an emphasis on natural fracture density, stress ratio, and injection rate. The response surface methodology was employed to perform the multiple-factor analysis and optimization in the maximization of the SRV. A sensitivity study reveals a number of interesting observations resulting from these parameters on the fracturing network evaluation. It is suggested from the geometry morphology of fracturing network that high natural fracture density and injection rate tend to maximize the fracturing network. The influence of stress contrast on fracturing network is nonlinear; an optimal value exists resulting in the best hydraulic fracturing effectiveness.     

Numerical Modeling of Natural Fracture Distributions in Shale

The production efficiency of shale gas is affected by the interaction between hydraulic and natural fractures. This study presents a simulation of natural fractures in shale reservoirs, based on a discrete fracture network (DFN) method for hydraulic fracturing engineering. Fracture properties of the model are calculated from core fracture data, according to statistical mathematical analysis. The calculation results make full use of the quantitative information of core fracture orientation, density, opening and length, which constitute the direct and extensive data of mining engineering. The reliability and applicability of the model are analyzed with regard to model size and density, a calculation method for dominant size and density being proposed. Then, finite element analysis is applied to a hydraulic fracturing numerical simulation of a shale fractured reservoir in southeastern Chongqing. The hydraulic pressure distribution, fracture propagation, acoustic emission information and in situ stress changes during fracturing are analyzed. The results show the application of fracture statistics in fracture modeling and the influence of fracture distribution on hydraulic fracturing engineering. The present analysis may provide a reference for shale gas exploitation.     

页岩储层体积压裂裂缝扩展机制研究

页岩储层天然裂缝、水平层理发育,水力压裂过程中可能形成复杂的体积裂缝。针对页岩储层体积裂缝扩展问题,基于流-固耦合基本方程和损伤力学原理,建立了页岩储层水力压裂体积裂缝扩展的三维有限元模型。将数值模型的模拟结果与页岩储层裂缝扩展室内试验结果进行对比,二者吻合较好,从而证明了数值模型的可靠性。通过一系列数值模拟发现：（1）水力压裂过程中水平层理可能张开,形成水平缝,水平与垂直缝相互交错,形成复杂的体积裂缝网络;（2）水平主应力差增大,体积裂缝的分布长度（水平最大主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）增加、分布宽度（水平最小主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）减小,体积裂缝的长宽比增加;（3）压裂施工排量增大,体积裂缝的分布长度减小、宽度增加,压裂裂缝的长宽比降低;（4）天然裂缝的残余抗张强度增大,体积裂缝分布宽度减小、分布长度增加,体积裂缝的长宽比增加。研究成果可以为国内的页岩气的压裂设计和施工提供一定的参考和借鉴。     

Prediction and analysis of the stimulated reservoir volume for shale gas reservoirs based on rock failure mechanism

The ultra-low-permeability shale gas reservoir has a lot of well-developed natural fractures. It has been proven that hydraulic fracture growth pattern is usually a complex network fracture rather than conventional single planar fractures by micro-seismic monitoring, which can be explained as the shear and tensile failure of natural fractures or creation of new cracks due to the increase in reservoir pore pressure caused by fluid injection during the process of hydraulic fracturing. In order to simulate the network fracture growth, a mathematical model was established based on full tensor permeability, continuum method and fluid mass conservation equation. Firstly, the governing equation of fluid diffusivity based on permeability tensor was solved to obtain the reservoir pressure distribution. Then Mohr–Coulomb shear failure criterion and tensile failure criterion were used to decide whether the rock failed or not in any block on the basis of the calculated reservoir pressure. The grid-block permeability was modified according to the change of fracture aperture once any type of rock failure criterion was met within a grid block. Finally, the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) zone was represented by an enhancement permeability zone. After calibrating the numerical solution of the model with the field micro-seismic information, a sensitivity study was performed to analyze the effects of some factors including initial reservoir pressure, injection fluid volume, natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal stress difference on the SRV (shape, size, bandwidth and length). The results show that the SRV size increases with the increasing initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume, but decreases with the increase in the horizontal principal stress difference and natural fracture azimuth angle. The SRV shape is always similar for different initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume. The SRV is observed to become shorter in length and wider in bandwidth with the decrease in natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal principal stress difference.     

Semianalytical modeling on 3D stress redistribution during hydraulic fracturing stimulation and its effects on natural fracture reactivation

The hydraulic fracturing technique has been widely applied in many fields, such as the enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), the improvement of injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO₂, and for the stimulations of oil and gas reservoirs. The key points for the success of hydraulic fracturing operations in unconventional resources are to accurately estimate the redistribution of pore pressure and stresses around the induced fracture and predict the reactivations of preexisting natural fractures. The pore pressure and stress regime around hydraulic fracture are affected by poroelastic and thermoelastic phenomena as well as by fracture opening compression. In this work, a comprehensive semi-analytical model is used to estimate the stress and pore pressure distribution around an injection-induced fracture from a single well in an infinite reservoir. The model allows the leak-off distribution in the formation to be three-dimensional with the pressure transient moving ellipsoidically outward into the reservoir from the fracture surface. The pore pressure and the stress changes in three dimensions at any point around the fracture caused by poroelasticity, thermoelasticity, and fracture compression are investigated. With Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, we calculate the natural fracture reactivations in the reservoir. Then, two case studies of constant water injection into a hydraulic fracture are presented. This work is of interest in the interpretation of microseismicity in hydraulic fracturing and in the estimation of the fracture spacing for hydraulic fracturing operations. In addition, the results from this study can be very helpful for the selection of stimulated wells and further design of the refracturing operations.     

Fully coupled simulation of a hydraulic fracture interacting with natural fractures with a hybrid discrete‐continuum method

A hybrid discrete‐continuum numerical scheme is developed to study the behavior of a hydraulic fracture crossing natural fractures. The fully coupled hybrid scheme utilizes a discrete element model for an inner domain, within which the hydraulic fracture propagates and interacts with natural fractures. The inner domain is embedded in an outer continuum domain that is implemented to extend the length of the hydraulic fracture and to better approximate the boundary effects. The fracture is identified to propagate initially in the viscosity‐dominated regime, and the numerical scheme is calibrated by using the theoretical plane strain hydraulic fracture solution. The simulation results for orthogonal crossing indicate three fundamental crossing scenarios, which occur for various stress ratios and friction coefficients of the natural fracture: (i) no crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture is arrested by the natural fracture and makes a T‐shape intersection; (ii) offset crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture crosses the natural fracture with an offset; and (iii) direct crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture directly crosses the natural fracture without diversion. Each crossing scenario is associated with a distinct net pressure history. Additionally, the effects of strength contrast and stiffness contrast of rock materials and intersection angle between the hydraulic fracture and the natural fracture are also investigated. The simulations also illustrate that the level of fracturing complexity increases as the number and extent of the natural fractures increase. As a result, we can conclude that complex hydraulic fracture propagation patterns occur because of complicated crossing behavior during the stimulation of naturally fractured reservoirs. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of mechanical layering on hydraulic fracturing in shale gas reservoirs based on numerical models

Generally, induced hydraulic fractures are generated by fluid overpressure and are used to increase reservoir permeability through forming interconnected fracture systems. However, in heterogeneous and anisotropic rocks, many hydraulic fractures may become arrested or offset at layer contacts under certain conditions and do not form vertically connected fracture networks. Mechanical layering is an important factor causing anisotropy in sedimentary layers. Hence, in this study, with a shale gas reservoir case study in the Longmaxi Formation in the southeastern Chongqing region, Sichuan Basin, we present results from several numerical models to gain quantitative insights into the effects of mechanical layering on hydraulic fracturing. Results showed that the fractured area caused by hydraulic fracturing indicated a linear relationship with the neighboring layer’s Young’s modulus. An increase of the neighboring layer’s Young’s modulus resulted in better hydraulic fracturing effects. In addition, the contact between two neighboring layers is regarded as a zone with thickness and mechanical properties, which also influences the effects of hydraulic fracturing in reservoirs. The initial hydraulic fracture was unable to propagate into neighboring layers under a relatively low contact’s Young’s modulus. When associated local tensile stresses exceeded the rock strength, hydraulic fractures propagated into neighboring layers. Moreover, with the contact’s Young’s modulus becoming higher, the fractured area increased rapidly first, then slowly and finally became stable.     

三向应力下土体水力劈裂的破坏机理及适用性探讨

土体中的水力劈裂破坏机理存在两种观点：张拉破坏机理和剪切破坏机理。前人已经对其进行了大量地研究,并分别基于两种破坏机理提出了起劈压力的理论计算式,但是对其适用性没有进一步探讨。分别分析三向应力状态下土体水力劈裂的张拉破坏和剪切破坏判定准则,并基于Mohr-Coulomb屈服准则分析两种破坏机理的适用条件。分析结果表明,土体的水力劈裂是张拉破坏还是剪切破坏与小主应力σ3和不排水抗剪强度cu的大小密切相关,当小主应力σ3较大且不排水抗剪强度cu较小时,土体的劈裂多受剪切破坏机理控制;反之,土体的劈裂为张拉破坏。最后通过已有文献中的试验结果验证了所提出的两种破坏机理适用条件的合理性。     

Overview of numerical models for interactions between hydraulic fractures and natural fractures: Challenges and limitations

The intersection of natural fractures with hydraulic fractures results in formation of complex fracture networks, including non-planar fractures or multi-stranded fractures. On one hand, opening of these natural fractures improves productivity of the formation; on the other hand, coalescence of these fractures into a hydraulic fracture makes pressure analysis and prediction of fracture growth very complicated. Overall, interactions between natural fractures and hydraulic fractures pose more challenges in the fracturing design and its execution. Investigation and understanding of their interaction are crucial in achieving successful fracture treatments in formations with pre-existing natural fracture network. In this paper, we will review the numerical works that have been done in the last decade to model opening of natural fractures during hydraulic fracturing, focusing especially on mechanical models that address propagation of hydraulic fractures in naturally fractures reservoirs. Linear elastic fracture mechanics, cohesive element methods and continuum damage mechanics techniques utilized to understand interaction of hydraulic fractures with natural fractures are discussed here based on their capability to reproduce experimental results and field observations.     

Faulting, fracturing and in situ stress prediction in the Ahnet Basin, Algeria — a finite element approach

Many low-efficiency hydrocarbon reservoirs are productive largely because effective reservoir permeability is controlled by faults and natural fractures. Accurate and low-cost information on basic fault and fracture properties, orientation in particular, is critical in reducing well costs and increasing well recoveries. This paper describes how we used an advanced numerical modelling technique, the finite element method (FEM), to compute site-specific in situ stresses and rock deformation and to predict fracture attributes as a function of material properties, structural position and tectonic stress. Presented are the numerical results of two-dimensional, plane-strain end-member FEM models of a hydrocarbon-bearing fault-propagation-fold structure. Interpretation of the modelling results remains qualitative because of the intrinsic limitations of numerical modelling; however, it still allows comparisons with (the little available) geological and geophysical data.

In all models, the weak mechanical strength and flow properties of a thick shale layer (the main seal) leads to a decoupling of the structural deformation of the shallower sediments from the underlying sediments and basement, and results in flexural slip across the shale layer. All models predict rock fracturing to initiate at the surface and to expand with depth under increasing horizontal tectonic compression. The stress regime for the formation of new fractures changes from compressional to shear with depth. If pre-existing fractures exist, only (sub)horizontal fractures are predicted to open, thus defining the principal orientation of effective reservoir permeability. In models that do not include a blind thrust fault in the basement, flexural amplification of the initial fold structure generates additional fracturing in the crest of the anticline controlled by the material properties of the rocks. The folding-induced fracturing expands laterally along the stratigraphic boundaries under enhanced tectonic loading. Models incorporating a blind thrust fault correctly predict the formation of secondary syn- and anti-thetic mesoscale faults in the basement and sediments of the hanging wall. Some of these faults cut reservoir and/or seal layers, and thus may influence effective reservoir permeability and affect seal integrity. The predicted faults divide the sediments across the anticline in several compartments with different stress levels and different rock failure (and proximity to failure). These numerical model outcomes can assist classic interpretation of seismic and well bore data in search of fractured and overpressured hydrocarbon reservoirs.     

Fracturing and Episodic Fluid Expulsion in Pressure Compartments

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基于零厚度内聚力单元的水力裂缝随机扩展方法研究

为有效模拟裂缝性页岩储层中水力裂缝随机扩展过程,基于单元节点的拓扑数据结构,利用网格节点分裂方式,建立了一种基于有限元网格嵌入零厚度内聚力单元的水力裂缝随机扩展新方法。利用KGD模型解析解和2种室内试验,验证了新方法的准确性和有效性。同时,通过数值算例研究了水平地应力差和储层非均质性对水力裂缝随机扩展过程的影响。研究表明:(1)该方法弥补了ABAQUS平台内置的内聚力单元无法有效模拟水力裂缝随机扩展的不足;(2)在较高水平地应力差下页岩储层非均质性越强,与水力裂缝相交的高角度天然裂缝越容易开启。所建方法能准确地描述复杂水力裂缝的随机扩展行为,可为裂缝性页岩储层的数值模拟提供新手段。     

煤层水力压裂应力与裂隙演化的细观规律

水力压裂作为煤层强化增透技术的一种,其应力演化特征及裂隙形态与扩展范围的判断尤为重要。采用离散元数值方法,以导向压裂为背景,建立水力压裂流固耦合模型;通过应力路径、裂纹热点图等手段,探究水力压裂过程中压裂排量、泊松比、天然裂隙密度对应力演化和裂隙演化的影响及其细观规律。结果表明:不同压裂排量下的应力演化方向及最终应力路径曲线形状有着明显的不同,低排量下裂隙附近的应力比值逐渐增大,而在高排量下先增大后减小;煤层泊松比越大,平均压裂半径越低,但对起裂时间及裂隙的扩展形态影响不明显;天然裂隙的发育情况对水力裂隙的扩展起着关键性作用,高裂隙发育煤层水力裂隙扩展的方向性无法预测,应力演化方向会出现反转现象;压裂过程中不同区域的应力演化特征能够反映出裂隙的扩展状态,现场可通过监测压裂区域附近应力变化,判断水力压裂缝网的扩展范围。      

Numerical analysis of the effect of natural microcracks on the supercritical CO2 fracturing crack network of shale rock based on bonded particle models

The problem of predicting the geometric structure of induced fractures is highly complex and significant in the fracturing stimulation of rock reservoirs. In the traditional continuous fracturing models, the mechanical properties of reservoir rock are input as macroscopic quantities. These models neglect the microcracks and discontinuous characteristics of rock, which are important factors influencing the geometric structure of the induced fractures. In this paper, we simulate supercritical CO₂ fracturing based on the bonded particle model to investigate the effect of original natural microcracks on the induced‐fracture network distribution. The microcracks are simulated explicitly as broken bonds that form and coalesce into macroscopic fractures in the supercritical CO₂ fracturing process. A calculation method for the distribution uniformity index (DUI) is proposed. The influence of the total number and DUI of initial microcracks on the mechanical properties of the rock sample is studied. The DUI of the induced fractures of supercritical CO₂ fracturing and hydraulic fracturing for different DUIs of initial microcracks are compared, holding other conditions constant. The sensitivity of the DUI of the induced fractures to that of initial natural microcracks under different horizontal stress ratios is also probed. The numerical results indicate that the distribution of induced fractures of supercritical CO₂ fracturing is more uniform than that of common hydraulic fracturing when the horizontal stress ratio is small.     

A numerical investigation of the hydraulic fracturing behaviour of conglomerate in Glutenite formation

Rock formations in Glutenite reservoirs typically display highly variable lithology and permeability, low and complex porosity, and significant heterogeneity. It is difficult to predict the pathway of hydraulic fractures in such rock formations. To capture the complex hydraulic fractures in rock masses, a numerical code called Rock Failure Process Analysis (RFPA2D) is introduced. Based on the characteristics of a typical Glutenite reservoir in China, a series of 2D numerical simulations on the hydraulic fractures in a small-scale model are conducted. The initiation, propagation and associated stress evolution of the hydraulic fracture during the failure process, which cannot be observed in experimental tests, are numerically simulated. Based on the numerical results, the hydraulic fracturing path and features are illustrated and discussed in detail. The influence of the confining stress ratio, gravel sizes (indicated by the diameter variation), and gravel volume content (VC) on the hydraulic fracturing pattern in a conglomerate specimen are numerically investigated, and the breakdown pressure is quantified as a function of these variables. Five hydraulic fracturing modes are identified: termination, deflection, branching (bifurcation), penetration, and attraction. The propagation trajectory of the primary hydraulic fractures is determined by the maximum and minimum stress ratios, although the fracturing path on local scales is clearly influenced by the presence of gravels in the conglomerate, particularly when the gravels are relatively large. As the stress ratio increases, the fractures typically penetrate through the gravels completely rather than propagating around the gravels, and the breakdown pressure decreases with increasing stress ratio. Furthermore, the breakdown pressure is affected by the size and volume content of the gravel in the conglomerate: as the gravel size and volume content increase, the breakdown pressure increases.     

超临界CO2分段多簇压裂井间干扰规律研究

水平井分段多簇压裂是非常规油气藏开发的关键技术,在合理利用压裂诱导应力增大储层改造体积的同时,避免井间干扰所导致的裂缝砂堵和压裂窜扰,是压裂工艺优化中的关键科学问题。文章针对超临界CO₂分段多簇压裂的缝间干扰和井间干扰问题,采用流固耦合的扩展有限元方法研究单井及多井裂缝诱导应力演化特征,充分考虑裂缝内超临界CO₂流动和滤失,从非常规油气储层岩性特征、地应力场分布及施工工艺等多方面对压裂扰动应力进行系统研究,揭示单井分段多簇压裂缝扩展机制及应力扰动特征,在此基础上研究多井井间压裂缝干扰规律。结果表明：高水平应力差、高弹性模量的储层中压裂干扰界限较大,低水平应力差、低弹性模量地层需适度增大簇间距,减小簇间干扰;老井压裂后,其邻井压裂缝非对称系数随井间距呈先增大、后减小的趋势;当井间距等于压裂干扰界限时,非对称系数λ达到最大,且井周改造范围最大,但裂缝两翼的非对称性可能导致储层动用不充分。本研究为水平井细分切割压裂和立体式井网设计优化提供理论基础,在“双碳”战略背景下对非常规油气资源高效开发具有重要意义。     

页岩水平井多段分簇压裂起裂压力数值模拟

页岩储层孔隙度和渗透率极低,天然裂缝和水平层理发育,常规压裂增产措施无法满足页岩气的开发要求,水平井多段分簇压裂是页岩气开发的关键技术之一,该技术能够大幅度提升压裂改造的体积、产气量和最终采收率。为确定页岩储层水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力,采用有限元方法建立了水平井套管完井（考虑水泥环和套管的存在）多段分簇射孔的全三维起裂模型。数值模型的起裂压力与室内试验结果吻合较好,证明了数值模型的准确性和可靠性。利用数值模型研究了页岩水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力的影响因素,研究发现：射孔孔眼附近无天然裂缝或水平层理影响,起裂点发生在射孔簇孔眼的根部;射孔簇间距越小,中间射孔簇的干扰越大,可能造成中间的射孔簇无法起裂;射孔密度和孔眼长度增大,起裂压力降低;天然裂缝的存在,在某些情况能够降低起裂压力且改变起裂位置,主要与天然裂缝的分布方位及水平主应力差有关;水平层理可能会降低起裂压力,但与垂向主应力与水平最小主应力的差值有关。获得的起裂压力变化规律,可作为进一步研究水平井多段分簇射孔条件下的裂缝扩展规律的基础,可以为压裂设计和施工的射孔参数确定及优化给出具体建议。