MICP联合纤维加筋改性钙质砂的动力特性研究

为了提高我国南海钙质砂地基的抗液化性能,提出利用微生物诱导碳酸钙沉积（MICP）技术联合纤维加筋技术对钙质砂进行改性处理。通过开展动三轴试验,对比分析了改性前后钙质砂试样的动应变、动孔压、应力−应变滞回曲线以及动弹性模量的发展规律和演化特征,并结合扫描电镜（SEM）试验探究了MICP和纤维加筋技术对钙质砂的联合改性机制。研究结果表明：（1）MICP技术可以明显改善钙质砂试样的抗变形与抗液化性能,相比于未胶结处理试样,仅MICP处理试样的动应变和动孔压分别降低了95.74% 和 92.46%;（2）纤维的掺入进一步提升了MICP的改性效果,相比于仅MICP处理试样,MICP和纤维加筋联合处理试样的动应变和动孔压分别降低了 74.32%和 74.18%;（3）MICP 和纤维加筋技术通过减轻试样在循环荷载作用下的循环活动强度和能量耗散、提高试样的动弹性模量和减小动弹性模量的衰减速率,从而实现试样抗变形与抗液化性能的显著提高;（4）SEM 试验分析结果表明,MICP 与纤维对钙质砂动力特性的改善具有协同作用。纤维的掺入为细菌提供了更多的附着场所,促进了碳酸钙晶体的生成量,该部分碳酸钙不仅增加了颗粒间的胶结强度,同时也将纤维固定在砂颗粒上增强了纤维网的约束作用。     

Effects of initial static shear on cyclic resistance and pore pressure generation of saturated sand

In practical engineering, cyclic shear stresses induced by earthquakes, traffic, and waves are superimposed on the initial static shear stress in sand fills or deposits, leading to complex responses of soils such as their deformation characteristics, pore pressure generation, and susceptibility (or cyclic resistance) to liquefaction. To experimentally investigate the undrained cyclic response of saturated sand, a series of triaxial tests were performed, covering a broad range of initial static and cyclic deviatoric stress levels. The results indicate that different stress conditions lead to two types of cyclic behavior: cyclic mobility and residual deformation accumulation. The compressional static stress is beneficial to the cyclic resistance of the dense sand, whereas the extensional static stress is regarded as detrimental as it tended to reduce the cyclic strength. Moreover, by comparing the available test data obtained from the same sand with varying initial densities and confining pressures, the static shear effect on cyclic resistance was found to be dependent on the state of the sand. Compared to the interpretation made using the limiting pore pressure-based criterion, the conventional failure criterion using a cyclic axial strain of 5% may lead to a substantial overestimation of the cyclic resistance, thus resulting in unsafe assessment and design. Hence, by employing the pore pressure criterion, the pore pressure generated in the cyclic tests was investigated and was found to be significantly influenced by the static shear stress. A pore pressure generation model is proposed to obtain the pore pressure characteristics of sand under various static shear stress conditions.     

Triaxial tests on the fluidic behavior of post-liquefaction sand

Liquefaction-induced ground deformation is a major cause of structural damage during earthquakes. However, a better understanding of seismic liquefaction is needed to improve earthquake hazard analyses and mitigate structural damage. In this paper, a dynamic triaxial test apparatus was employed to investigate the fluidic characteristics of post-liquefaction sand. The specimens were vibrated to the point of liquefaction by dynamic loading, and then the liquefied sand was further sheared by triaxial compression in an undrained manner. It was found that a non-Newtonian fluid model can accurately describe the shear stress and the shear strain rate of post-liquefaction sand during undrained triaxial compression. The apparent viscosity, a major parameter in a constitutive model of a non-Newtonian fluid, decreases with an increase in the shear strain rate.     

The effects of unloading on drained cyclic behaviour of Sydney sand

New excavation or tunnelling affects the stress state of soils in ground. The change of stress state due to excavation may affect the cyclic behaviour of soils. Cyclic loading, such as traffic and earthquake loading, induced ground deformation may be greater than expected if such effect is not considered. A series of cyclic triaxial tests were performed on Sydney sand with different relative densities. The effect of unloading sequence on deformation of the sand under cyclic loading was simulated by reducing lateral stress in steps between loading cycles. The dependence of strain accumulation on the magnitude of confining pressure reduction and on unloading stress paths was studied. The results indicate that the sand has a memory of stress history and the stress history of such unloading enlarges the strain accumulation during the subsequent cycles, and the greater the reduction of lateral stress, the greater the accumulated strain. Under cyclic loading, the accumulated axial strain could increase nonlinearly or linearly with the ratio of unloading magnitude to initial mean effective stress, depending on the stress state before cyclic loading. The unloading stress paths have limited effects on the final accumulated strain if the initial and final stress states are the same. The variation of strain accumulation direction attributes to the change of average stress ratio resulting from lateral stress reduction, but hardly depends on relative density and unloading stress paths. The strain accumulation direction after unloading roughly agrees with the modified Cam Clay flow rule.

     

基于单相流的减饱和砂土流固耦合改进算法

减饱和法是一种通过减小饱和砂土地基中水的饱和度来处置可液化砂土地基的方法。基于单相流-固耦合理论,将减饱和砂中水-气两相流体等效为单相流体,提出一种可以考虑加载过程中孔隙流体体积模量变化的减饱和砂土静态液化的单相流改进算法,用其进行单调荷载作用下三轴不排水压缩试验数值模拟研究,分析了不同饱和度条件下的减饱和砂土的不排水反应并与饱和砂土三轴不排水试验结果进行对比。研究结果表明,单相流改进算法能够很好地反映减饱和法的抗液化特性。此外,对比不同数值分析方法模拟结果,得出以下结论：采用单相流简化算法分析减饱和砂土的不排水反应时,因为不考虑加载过程中的孔隙流体体积模量变化,所以初始的流体体积模量取值会影响减饱和砂土的强度,初始围压为100 kPa、饱和度为96%的减饱和砂土在单调荷载作用下,气体体积模量取值从100 kPa增加至200 kPa时,减饱和砂试样的峰值偏应力会减小约30%,孔隙压力会增加约40%;通过对比同等条件下的单相流改进算法和两相流算法的应力-应变关系曲线以及饱和度和体积应变变化曲线,两者结果相近,误差在5%以内。综上所述,单相流改进算法是一种较为合理而简洁地模拟减饱和砂土静态液化的计算方法。     

DEM study of fabric features governing undrained post-liquefaction shear deformation of sand

In an effort to study undrained post-liquefaction shear deformation of sand, the discrete element method (DEM) is adopted to conduct undrained cyclic biaxial compression simulations on granular assemblies consisting of 2D circular particles. The simulations are able to successfully reproduce the generation and eventual saturation of shear strain through the series of liquefaction states that the material experiences during cyclic loading after the initial liquefaction. DEM simulations with different deviatoric stress amplitudes and initial mean effective stresses on samples with different void ratios and loading histories are carried out to investigate the relationship between various mechanics- or fabric-related variables and post-liquefaction shear strain development. It is found that well-known metrics such as deviatoric stress amplitude, initial mean effective stress, void ratio, contact normal fabric anisotropy intensity, and coordination number, are not adequately correlated to the observed shear strain development and, therefore, could not possibly be used for its prediction. A new fabric entity, namely the Mean Neighboring Particle Distance (MNPD), is introduced to reflect the space arrangement of particles. It is found that the MNPD has an extremely strong and definitive relationship with the post-liquefaction shear strain development, showing MNPD’s potential role as a parameter governing post-liquefaction behavior of sand.     

Modeling cyclic shearing of sands in the semifluidized state

Liquefaction is associated with the loss of mean effective stress and increase of the pore water pressure in saturated granular materials due to their contractive tendency under cyclic shear loading. The loss of mean effective stress is linked to loss of grain contacts, bringing the granular material to a “semifluidized state” and leading to development and accumulation of large cyclic shear strains. Constitutive modeling of the cyclic stress-strain response in earthquake-induced liquefaction and post-liquefaction is complex and yet very important for stress-deformation and performance-based analysis of sand deposits. A new state internal variable named strain liquefaction factor is introduced that evolves at low mean effective stresses, and its constitutive role is to reduce the plastic shear stiffness and dilatancy while maintaining the same plastic volumetric strain rate in the semifluidized state. This new constitutive ingredient is added to an existing critical state compatible, bounding surface plasticity reference model, that is well established for constitutive modeling of cyclic response of sands in the pre-liquefaction state. The roles of the key components of the proposed formulation are examined in a series of sensitivity analyses. Their combined effects in improving the performance of the reference model are examined by simulating undrained cyclic simple shear tests on Ottawa sand, with focus on reproducing the increasing shear strain amplitude as well as its saturation in the post-liquefaction response.     

A possible continuum theory for densification and liquefaction of saturated sand

A previously developed continuum theory of granular media is applied to the problems of densification and liquefaction of saturated sand. An expression for the free energy of saturated sand is developed. The process of densification of sand subjected to cyclic shear stress is studied and several expressions for an increase of the solid volume fraction are obtained and discussed. The problem of the initial liquefaction of saturated sand samples under cyclic shear stress is then considered and several criteria relating the shear stress amplitude, over-burden pressure, time to liquefaction, and physical properties of the sand sample are established. Some semiempirical relations for field applications are also presented.     

纤维加筋砂土抗液化试验与数值模拟

砂土液化是导致重大地震灾害的主要原因之一。本研究探讨了天然纤维加筋砂土在循环荷载作用下的抗液化性能。在不排水条件下,对具有不同纤维含量的加筋砂土试样进行了一系列循环三轴试验,研究了饱和砂土的液化特性以及循环剪应变幅值、纤维含量对饱和砂土抗液化性能的影响。此外,通过模拟已完成的循环三轴试验,建立了二维有限元数值模型,并对具有不同纤维含量的加筋砂土进行了参数标定。研究结果表明:(1)增加循环剪应变幅值将促进超孔压累积,使得滞回曲线斜率和平均有效应力减小速度加快;(2)纤维的存在能够减缓超孔压的累积,随着纤维含量增加,加筋砂土抗液化能力得到明显提高;(3)标定后的本构模型参数能可靠地用于模拟纤维加筋砂土的液化响应。研究结果为饱和砂土抗液化问题与纤维加筋砂土的数值模拟提供了有价值的参考。     

复杂加载条件下珊瑚砂抗液化强度试验研究

循环加载方式与应力路径对砂土的抗液化强度有很大的影响。利用GDS空心圆柱扭剪仪对南海珊瑚砂进行了一系列复杂加载条件下均等固结不排水循环试验,探讨了90°突变应力路径下主应力方向角对珊瑚砂抗液化强度的影响。试验结果发现：以循环应力比（CSR）作为应力水平指标,当不控制中主应力系数b的变化时,主应力方向角 对珊瑚砂的抗液化强度并无显著影响;当控制b始终保持0.5时,珊瑚砂的抗液化强度随着 的增加呈现出先减小后增大的趋势,且在 45°时的抗液化强度最低。基于分析循环荷载引起的土单元大、小循环主应力 、 变化,定义了单元体循环应力比（USR）作为一个新的物理指标,发现不同循环加载方式与应力路径条件下施加于珊瑚砂试样的USR与引起液化所需的循环次数NL存在事实上的唯一性关系。通过引自文献的4种无黏性土原始试验数据的再处理,独立地验证了以USR表征砂类土液化强度的适用性。     

饱和砂土的剪切波速与其抗液化强度关系研究

根据饱和砂土剪切波速与其抗液化强度的相关性原理,利用剪切波速与振动三轴联合实验装置,进行了控制饱和砂土初始剪切波速的振动液化实验,依据实验结果建立了剪切波速与抗液化强度的定量关系。最后用现场勘查数据对此定量关系进行验证,结果表明：该关系式对实际 66 个未液化地点的判别准确率达到 81.2 %;对 108 个实际液化地点的判别准确率达到 62.8 %;平均判别准确率达到 69.5 %。     

材料状态对干砂小应变特性的影响

利用注能虚拟质量(EIVM)共振柱系统进行了干砂小应变特性试验,研究了有效平均正应力、土样密度、剪应变幅值以及荷载往复次数对剪切模量和阻尼比的影响。试验结果表明,剪切模量随有效平均正应力与土样密度的增加而增加,而阻尼比的变化规律则与之相反,并且有效平均正应力对干砂小应变特性的影响程度比土样密度的影响程度大得多;随着剪应变的增加,剪切模量越来越小,而阻尼比越来越大;荷载往复次数对剪切模量基本没有影响,而对阻尼比有较大影响。     

冻融循环对粉砂土动力特性影响的试验研究

借助GDS动三轴试验研究了不同负温下经历多次冻融循环后粉砂土的动应力、动模量、动模量比和阻尼比等动力参数的变化规律。试验发现，相同动应变下，冻融循环与动应力和动模量呈负相关性，而与动模量比和阻尼比呈正相关性，随着冻融次数增加，动应力和动模量都减小，动模量比和阻尼比都增大，通过回归分析分别给出了动模量比与动应变关系曲线和阻尼比与动应变关系曲线的归一化拟合模型。冻融循环对初始动模量和最大阻尼比影响显著。随着冻融次数增加，初始动模量减小，而最大阻尼比增大。分别对不同负温下冻融次数对初始动模量和最大阻尼比的影响进行了回归分析，提出了冻融次数修正系数的计算公式。结果表明，温度越低冻融循环对粉砂土动力特性影响越明显，经历5次冻融循环后的动力参数相对稳定，建议将5次冻融循环后的动力参数作为基本参数进行动力反应分析计算。     

Simple Shear Behavior of Calcareous and Quartz Sands

The monotonic and cyclic simple shear behavior of several loose skeletal calcareous sands is investigated and compared to that of common Nevada and Ottawa quartz sands in order to draw contrasts between these types of materials and to develop stiffness and modulus degradation curves for quasi-nonlinear ground response analysis. Mobilized frictional resistance and cyclic strength are generally higher for the calcareous sands, whereas shear modulus and damping are larger for quartz sand at strain levels between 0.05 and 1%. Degradation properties do not appear to be very sensitive to the initial cyclic stress ratio. Differences in behavior between the calcareous and quartz sands are presumably due to contrasts in grain geometry, hardness, gradation and the amount of intraparticle voids.     

A unified plasticity model for large post-liquefaction shear deformation of sand

Based on previous experimental findings and theoretical developments, this paper presents the formulation and numerical algorithms of a novel constitutive model for sand with special considerations for cyclic behaviour and accumulation of large post-liquefaction shear deformation. Appropriate formulation for three volumetric strain components enables the model to accurately predict loading and load reversal behaviour of sand, fully capturing the features of cyclic mobility. Compliance with the volumetric compatibility condition, along with reversible and irreversible dilatancy, allows for physically based simulation of the generation and accumulation of shear strain at zero effective stress after initial liquefaction. A state parameter was incorporated for compatibility with critical state soil mechanics, enabling the unified simulation of sand at various densities and confining pressures with a same set of parameters. The determination methods for the 14 model parameters are outlined in the paper. The model was implemented into the open source finite-element framework OpenSees using a cutting-plane stress integration scheme with substepping. The potentials of the model and its numerical implementation were explored via simulations of classical drained and undrained triaxial experiments, undrained cyclic torsional experiments, and a dynamic centrifuge experiment on a single pile in liquefiable soil. The results showed the model’s great capabilities in simulating small to large deformation in the pre- to post-liquefaction regime of sand.     

Geotechnical reconnaissance and liquefaction analyses of a liquefaction site with silty fine sand in Southern Taiwan

Geotechnical reconnaissance of a recurrent liquefaction site at a Quaternary alluvial deposit in southern Taiwan was conducted to establish a comprehensive case history for liquefaction on silty fine sand with high fines content. The liquefaction occurred at a silty fine sand layer with D₅₀ = 0.09 mm and fines content greater than 35% and was triggered by a M_w = 6.4 earthquake on March 4, 2010, which induced maximum horizontal acceleration up to 0.189 g at the site. In situ subsurface characterizations, including standard penetration test, cone penetration test, and shear wave velocity measurement, were performed as well as cyclic simple shear tests on undisturbed specimens retrieved by a modified hydraulic piston sampler. Comparisons of cyclic resistance ratios (CRRs) indicate that CPT sounding with standard penetration rate could overestimate the resistance ratio and drainage conditions during penetration should be considered for high fines content soil in the liquefaction analysis. Additionally, variations of CRRs from different in situ tests indicate that correlations among in situ tests and CRR could be soil specific and precautions should be taken when using these curves on silty fine sands.     

非塑性细粒对饱和砂土液化特性影响的试验研究

利用空心圆柱扭剪仪对含非塑性细粒的饱和砂土进行单调加载和循环扭剪试验,研究了不同细粒含量饱和砂土的液化特性。试验结果表明：（1）最大孔隙比与最小孔隙比均随着细粒含量的增加呈先减小后增大的趋势,分别在20%和40%时达到最小。（2）细粒含量从0%增加到20%,体积应变逐渐增加;细粒含量从20%增加到40%时,体积应变逐渐减小;之后随着细粒含量从40%增加到60%,体积应变再次增大;细粒含量超过60%以后,体积应变再次递减。（3）随着细粒含量的增加,土样的峰值强度随之降低,应力-应变关系从应变硬化特征发展为理想的弹塑性。相变角在细粒含量为30%时达到最小值。（4）细粒含量越大,达到液化所需的循环次数越小,液化时的应变越小。（5）抗液化强度曲线与抗液化应力比的变化趋势一致,在小于界限细粒含量（30%）时,随着细粒含量的增加而减小。在界限细粒含量附近（30%～50%）时,随着细粒含量的增加而增大。在细粒含量增加到60%时出现明显的骤减,之后再次随着细粒含量的增加而增大。界限细粒含量在40%左右。     

饱和砂土液化后大变形机制的离散元细观分析

采用颗粒流软件模拟了饱和砂土在不排水条件下的循环剪切试验,研究了不同因素对液化的影响,并进一步分析了饱和砂土液化后宏观变形的基本规律。在此基础上,从孔隙分布角度解释了砂土液化后的大变形的细观物理机制。通过自编程序对颗粒排列和孔隙分布的演化过程进行定量描述,给出孔隙率标准差作为液化后体积收缩势的度量,并研究了孔隙率标准差与液化后大变形的关系。离散元细观数值模拟再现了室内试验中的宏观现象,证实了室内试验中饱和砂土液化后的有限剪切大变形是客观真实的材料响应。土体体积收缩势的累积所导致的孔隙均匀化以及土颗粒间自由空隙增大正是饱和砂土液化后循环剪应变逐渐增大的细观机制。孔隙率标准差作为孔隙均匀化的量化指标,与循环剪应变各周次幅值有良好的相关性。     

Undrained cyclic behavior of bentonite–sand mixtures and factors affecting it

In this work, the cyclic behavior of bentonite–sand mixtures and factors affecting it were studied by means of a ring-shear apparatus and a scanning electron microscope. It was found that bentonite content had a significant influence on the liquefaction potential of the studied soils. A small amount of bentonite in the mixtures would cause the formation of “loose” microstructures, resulting in the occurrence of rapid liquefaction under cyclic loading, while a high bentonite content would cause the formation of clay matrixes, thus raising the soil resistance to liquefaction. In addition, the effect of pore water chemistry on the cyclic behavior of a high plasticity bentonite–sand mixture was carefully examined. It was also found that the presence of ions in pore water would change the clay microfabric, making it more open and thus more vulnerable to liquefaction. Finally, the effects of loading frequency on the cyclic behavior of mixtures with different amounts of bentonite were investigated. It was found that as the bentonite content increased, the influence became more pronounced.