Mathematical approach to calculate indices for depositional environments of pelagic-hemipelagic-terrigenous sediments on the basis of metallic element concentrations

Modern marine sediments can be classified into terrigenous, hemipelagic, and pelagic types according to the distances from the land for the sites recovered and in terms of lithological characteristics of sediments. Ancient cherts are the best sedimentary rocks to reconstruct ancient depositional environments and hemipelagic and pelagic cherts can be identified in terms of lithologic and stratigraphic characteristics. However, geochemical characteristics of modern sediments and ancient cherts can discriminate them into these three types. Particularly, the degree of correlation between Fe and Mg in clay minerals is the most effective criterion for the classification, because the concentration of pelagic clay minerals in which the Fe/Mg ratio is constant may become indices for the classification into the three types. The correlation coefficient and goodness-of-fit to a certain regression line were used as indices of the classification and calculated for several sets of modern sediments and ancient cherts totalling to more than 400 samples. The correlation coefficients and the student-t values for the coefficients become better classification indices than the goodness-of-fit andF-values of the analysis of variance. Goodness-of-fit andF-values can be only used as subsidiary indices for the main classification indices of the correlation coefficients. The classification on the basis of the degree of correlation between Fe and Mg is effective and this approach can be used for other major chemical elements such as Al, K, and Na, if some sequential values of chemical analyses are available.     

Adams和Couch法古盐度恢复结果的可靠性检验——以青海湖布哈河口区沉积物为例

Adams公式和Couch公式是利用沉积物中硼元素浓度对沉积水体古盐度进行定量恢复的常用方法,但由于两种方法的恢复结果经常存在较大差异,古盐度的计算结果常难以让人信服。为了验证Adams公式和Couch公式的可靠性,本次研究采集了青海湖布哈河口区不同沉积环境的表层沉积物和底层水体样品,处理后分别分析了沉积物中硼元素浓度、总有机碳（TOC）含量及矿物组成,同时对水体盐度及其硼浓度进行了测量,结果表明:湖泊水体中硼浓度与盐度存在极好的线性正相关性,但沉积物中硼元素的浓度与沉积水体中硼的浓度并无直接联系。根据沉积物中硼的浓度及黏土矿物含量和组成,分别采用Adams公式和Couch公式对水体盐度进行计算,盐度计算值均远高于水体盐度实测值,其中Adams公式的计算结果与实测值差别最大,盐度计算值与沉积物中硼含量呈正相关关系。沉积物中的硼元素主要由继承自母岩的硼、黏土矿物吸附硼和有机质中富集的硼三部分组成,只有黏土矿物中的吸附硼能够反映水体盐度。青海湖布哈河口区沉积物富含有机质,有机质对硼强烈的富集作用是导致Adams公式和Couch公式盐度恢复结果失效的重要原因,同时不同类型黏土矿物对硼吸附能力的差异也对恢复结果有重要影响:黏土矿物在盐水中的浸泡试验表明蒙脱石对硼的吸附能力最强,次为伊利石,高岭石吸附能力最差,推翻了Couch关于伊利石对硼吸附能力最强的认识。原Adams公式和Couch公式仅没有考虑有机质对硼的影响,对不同类型黏土矿物吸附能力的认识有误,不适合陆相沉积物沉积水体古盐度的恢复。沉积物黏土矿物中吸附硼浓度仍是反映沉积水体盐度的可靠指标,古盐度的恢复首先必须消除沉积物中有机质对硼的影响,然后根据一系列的浸泡试验确定不同类型黏土矿物对硼的吸附系数,并建立新的计算公式。     

江西泰和第四纪红色粘土的矿物特征

第四纪红色粘土在我国南方分布很广,最典型的分布在华中岗地上,土层较厚,上部土质均匀,下部具有红白网纹并含砾石,大都是中更新世的洪积-冲积或残积-坡积物,笔者认为可能是间冰期比较暖热气候条件下的产物。熊毅早就指出:各地环境殊异,地形复杂,母岩不同,其理化特征将随之而异。第四纪红色粘土来自不同的堆积相,和经受不同的风化和成土过程,这将在矿物组成方面反映出来。土壤普查的结果表明,第四纪红色粘土按其分布的地形部位,成因和物质来源,可分成两类:一类是残积坡积相，为中更新世较早的暗红色沉积物，即Q₂另一类是冲积相，为中更新世较晚的红化程度较轻的淡红色沉积物。它们都经历了中更新世至今的成土过程1)”。为了查明它们的差异，并有助于第四纪沉积物的研究，笔者用部分标本进行矿物分析，并对初步结果进行讨论。     

粘土矿物在黄河源区古气候研究中的应用

沉积物中粘土矿物的组成具有一定的古气候指示意义。利用沉积物中粘土矿物的组成探讨了黄河源区全新世的古气候变迁。通过X衍射方法分析了一个全新世地层剖面的粘土矿物类型和含量的变化,这些粘土矿物主要由伊利石、伊蒙混层矿物和少量的高岭石、绿泥石组成。对粘土矿物含量变化的分析和对比研究表明,黄河源区在全新世的气候寒冷干燥,即使在大暖期也显得温凉。全新世的气候演变可划分为3个阶段,即早全新世的干冷期、中全新世的温凉期(大暖期)和晚全新世的干冷期。在大暖期,在7 0kaB P 和5 0kaB P 前后发生了两次较强的降温事件。     

Clay minerals in recent sediments of the World Ocean and their relation to types of lithogenesis

Problem of the distribution of clay minerals in water areas of the World Ocean and their relation to different (humid, arid, and volcanosedimentary) types of lithogenesis is considered. It is shown that layer silicates can be used as index minerals for distinguishing types of lithogenesis under conditions of marine sedimentation. Humid marine lithogenesis is represented by sediments of the White, Baltic, Black, and Mediterranean seas. Genetic link of marine clay formation with soil-climatic zones is clearly manifested in recent sediments of the World Ocean. Accumulation of statistic data on the mineral composition of clays allowed us to distinguish two modes of spatial-latitudinal distribution of clay minerals: maximal concentrations of illites and chlorites are confined to high latitudes, whereas kaolinite and smectite accumulate in the equatorial zone. In the arid lithogenesis, the dependence of clay formation on drainage areas is practically absent. The whole process is realized in surficial sediments and bottom waters: under conditions of intense evaporation, especially in closed water basins, the concentration of elements in the medium is enough for the synthesis of layer silicates, such as palygorskite and sepiolite. The processes were studied based on the Paleogene Fergana Bay and bottom sediments of the Sea of Aral, as well as DSDP core materials from the Atlantic (near the western coast of Africa) and Indian (the Arabian Peninsula area) oceans. The investigation of processes of volcanosedimentary lithogenesis was carried out within the East Pacific Rise (on the basis of core materials obtained during cruises of R/V Dmitry Mendeleev and Akademik Kurchatov). The results obtained made it possible to establish authigenic (primarily celadonite) K-Fe mineralization in the most active geothermal zones. The formation of clay minerals has specific features in each of the studied (humid, arid, and volcanosedimentary) types of lithogenesis. This should be taken into consideration during the lithological investigations and the study of clay mineralogy of past geological epochs. Clay minerals (particularly, unstable mixed-layered phases) are actively used as index minerals for paleogeographic and climatologic reconstructions.     

Geochemical features of REE and Y accumulation in the subcolloid fraction of sediments from the northern part of Amur Bay (Sea of Japan)

The average contents of REE, Y, Fe, Mn, and clay minerals were determined in the subcolloid fraction of bottom sediments from the northern part of Amur Bay. The positive correlation of REE and Y contents with Fe and Mn is related to their flocculation and sorption on Fe, Mn oxyhydroxides and clay minerals (hydromica, smectites). The sediments are subdivided into three groups (sediments from the influence zone of the Razdol’naya River, sediments located along the eastern and western shores of the bay, and sediments weakly subjected to the river influence) with different average contents of REE, Y, Fe, and Mn. It is shown that REE and Y are mainly incorporated (98–100%) in clay minerals.     

A Reconstruction and Discussion of the Effect of Diagenetic Environment on Hydrocarbon Generation Based on Diagenetic Mineral Assemblage in Mudstone

Inorganic minerals in mudstone are composed of clay minerals,carbonate and detrital minerals.Detrital minerals(such as quartz and feldspar)are mainly original deposit.However,clay minerals(kaolinite,illite,and chlorite)and carbonate(calcite and dolomite)are mostly diagenetic minerals.Furthermore,conversion of the four kinds of clay minerals are common.The formation of clay minerals and carbonate is controlled by temperature,pressure,p H,Eh and type of cations during diagenesis.Therefore mineral assemblage can indicate the characteristics and change of diagenetic environment.In addition to inorganic minerals,there are also organic matter of different sources and chemical properties in mudstone.Traditionally,it is considered that evolution of organic matter is controlled by thermal effect.Now studies show that inorganic and organic matter can interact with each other and form clay-organic complexes.This suggest that attention should be paid to the influence of diagenetic mineral assemblage and diagenetic environment on the evolution of organic matter* Samples of mudstone from 1500-4500m of the Palaeogene in the Dongying Depression,China,were collected to investigate the changes of mudstone diagenetic environment.XRD,thin section and SEM were used to detect diagenetic minerals and assemblage characteristics.Results showed that content of detrital minerals,which are floating in mud matrix or preserved as silt laminae,is basically unchanged from shallow to deep strata.Clay minerals which are gathered as argillaceous matrix or preserved as argillaceous laminae have growth and decline relation to carbonate which mainly appear as micropoikilitic ferriferous calcite and ferriferous dolomite.All these characteristics indicate that detrital minerals are exogenetic,whereas carbonate is diagenetic minerals.Based on the SEM analysis of the clay minerals,it was found that smectite present honeycomb and reticulate structure,while illite present filiform and schistose structure and there are growth and decline relationship between them.Nevertheless,hexagonal tabular and stratified kaolinite has the highest content from 2400m to3300m.Rosette and stratified chlorite shows increase trend when the burial depth is deeper than 3300m.These characteristics indicated that clay minerals are diagenetic minerals and there are conversions among the four types.Therefore form shallow to deep,three diagenetic mineral assemblage zones can be divided based on the characteristics of carbonate and clay minerals in mudstone.Namely,smectite+illite/smectite zone in the depth of 2000-2500m;kaolinite+illite/smectite zone in the depth of 2500-3300m and illite+chlorite+carbonate zone below 3300m.Previous studies showed that kaolinite is stable under acidic conditions,while other clay minerals and carbonate are stable under alkaline conditions.Hence according to mineral assemblages feature,it was inferred that diagenetic environment of mudstonehasundergonethechangeof alkaline-acid-alkaline.For the organic matter with different chemical properties in mudstone,the hydrocarbon generation will be different in the acidic and alkaline diagenetic environment even if the conditions of temperature and pressure are the same.Therefore,for hydrocarbon generation we should not only focus on thermal effect,but also pay more attention to the differences of diagenetic environment which have great significance for the understanding of hydrocarbon generation,hydrocarbon expulsion and reservoir formation in mudstone.     

Clay‐coat diversity in marginal marine sediments

The specific mineralogy of clay grain coats controls the ability of the coat to inhibit quartz cementation in sandstones during prolonged burial and heating. How and why clay‐coat mineralogy varies across marginal marine systems is poorly understood, even though these eogenetic phenomena strongly influence subsequent mesodiagenesis and reservoir quality. The novel development of the ability to predict the distribution of clay‐coat mineralogy would represent an important development for sandstone reservoir quality prediction. In marginal marine sediments, clay minerals occur as grain‐coats, floccules, mud intraclasts, clay‐rich rock fragments or as dispersed material. However, the relationships between clay mineralogy, the amount of clay, and its distribution is poorly understood. This study focused on the Ravenglass Estuary, UK. The key aim was to develop and apply a novel methodology utilising scanning electron microscope – energy dispersive spectrometry, for the first time, on grain coats in modern sediments, to differentiate the clay‐coat mineral signature from that of the bulk sediment, and reveal the distribution of clay minerals across marginal marine sediments. The study showed that marginal marine sediments principally have their clay mineral assemblage present as clay‐coats on sand grains. These clay‐coats have a mixed clay mineralogy and are spatially heterogeneous across the range of marginal‐marine depositional environments. The study further showed that clay‐coat mineralogy is governed initially by the hydrologically‐controlled segregation of the clay minerals within inner estuarine depositional environments, and subsequently by the selective abrasive removal of specific clay mineral types during reworking and transport into the outer estuary and the marine environment. The highest relative abundance of grain‐coating chlorite was in sand‐flat and tidal‐bar depositional environments. The availability of an analogue data set, and an understanding of the controlling processes of clay‐coat mineralogy, offer crucial steps in building a predictive capability for clay‐coat derived elevated reservoir quality in deeply buried sandstones.     

Clastic heavy mineral assemblages in Permian-Mesozoic accretionary cherty and siliceous-clayey complexes of Sikhote Alin

The paper presents results of the study of assemblages of clastic heavy minerals and geochemical features of some assemblages in several Permian-Mesozoic cherty and siliceous-clayey sequences of Sikhote Alin. They are composed of pelagic and hemipelagic sediments of the Panthalassa (Paleopacific) Ocean. Four typical mineral assemblages and their environments are established. In one of the ocean segments, where sedimentary cover formed during the Late Paleozoic-Early Cretaceous, the Permian pelagic domain was characterized by the amphibole-pyroxene assemblage with heavy minerals derived from ophiolites. The Triassic-Jurassic stage was marked by development of the clinopyroxene assemblage with heavy minerals derived from intraplate alkaline volcanic complexes. Middle-Late Jurassic hemipelagic sediments host the zircon-clinopyroxene assemblage with a greater role of continental environments and the presence of volcanic products of the convergence zone. Another segment of the ocean accumulated red cherts and siliceous-clayey sediments during the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous under the influence of island-arc volcanism.     

Effects of grain size distribution on mineralogical and chemical compositions: a case study from size‐fractional sediments of the Huanghe (Yellow River) and Changjiang (Yangtze River)

The influence of hydrodynamics on the chemical composition of sediments is based on the uneven distribution of element abundances in different size fractions. In this study, 72 size‐fractional sediments from the Huanghe (Yellow River) and Changjiang (Yangtze River) riverbeds were measured with XRD, SEM, ICP‐AES and ICP‐MS. The analysis results show that the mineral and chemical characteristics change with grain size in the Huanghe and Changjiang sediments. According to the principal components analysis, three independent geochemical factors were found. The first factor elements, Zr, Hf, Th, U, Y, La and TiO₂ are influenced by the existence of heavy minerals. The second factor elements, Al₂O₃, alkalis, alkaline earth (excluding Ca and Sr) and most of the transitional metals are dominated by clay minerals. The third factor group includes Ca and Sr, which were controlled by calcium‐bearing mineral contents and chemical weathering intensities. The various grain size distributions greatly affect the mineralogical and chemical compositions of bulk sediments. Compared to other size fractions, the 5–6PHI size fractions of the Huanghe and Changjiang sediments have special mineralogical and chemical compositions, and intermediate volume percentages. Weight or volume percentage of each size fraction may be more suitable than mean grain‐size of the bulk sediment to elucidate the grain size effects. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values increase steeply with decreasing grain size, while Weathering Index of Parker (WIP) values are relatively stable. Because of the big influence of the abundance of clay minerals on CIA values, it is questionable to use CIA as a proxy of weathering intensity. Considering the clay mineral effects, stability in values and heterogeneous material properties, WIP has the potential to indicate the chemical weathering intensity of sediments. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

粘土矿物保存海洋沉积有机质研究进展及其碳循环意义

海洋沉积物吸附有机质的量和有机质循环周期与粘土矿物类型和吸附方式密切相关,并在全球碳循环中扮演着不同的角色。粘土吸附有机质有物理吸附和化学吸附之分,前者主要存在于粘土的微孔隙中,参与年、十年或百年尺度的循环;后者主要存在于粘土矿物层间和外表面,稳定性较好,有机质易于保存,可参与百万年或更长时间的循环,这种不同时间尺度内的碳循环,将会改写海洋沉积物有机碳“源”、“汇”的关系。不同类型粘土矿物的性质存在差异,决定了吸附有机质量的多寡,蒙脱石的吸附量远大于伊利石的吸附量,这可能是造成全球不同海域中有机碳“源”、“汇”变化的原因。海洋沉积物处于水圈、生物圈和岩石圈的交汇地带,有机碳的差异和变化,都会对全球碳循环及气候变化产生重要的影响。     

Major factors influencing boron adsorption in sediments—a case study of modern sediments in Qinghai Lake

Because the boron (B) concentration in water has an apparent positive correlation with salinity, the B content adsorbed in sediments is often regarded as an important indicator to reconstruct the water salinity in a sedimentary environment. The premise of the quantitative reconstruction of paleosalinity is that the B uptake in sediments is proportional to the B concentration in water; however, the study showed that there is no direct relationship. The B absorption in sediments can be affected by both the content of the clay minerals and the total organic carbon content. The data from testing modern sediments and water samples in the Qinghai Lake show that a higher content in clay minerals is beneficial for B adsorption. Furthermore, the organic carbon from halophiles has a strong effect on the enrichment of B. Therefore, the organic carbon content in sediments should be considered when the paleosalinity of water is reconstructed using its B content. It is also thought that the Adams and Couch formulas are not suitable for reconstructing the salinity of water with a high organic carbon content in sediments because they consider only the effect of clay minerals on the adsorbed B without the contribution of organic carbon.     

Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of recent clastic sediments from lower Godavari river: Implications of source rock weathering

The major, trace and rare earth elements geochemistry and clay mineral compositions in the river bed sediments from lower reaches of Godavari river suggest that they are derived from weathering of felsic rocks. Trace and rare earth elemental compositions indicate evidence of sedimentary sorting during transportation and deposition. Lower concentrations of transition elements, such as V, Ni and Cr imply enrichment of felsic minerals in these bed sediments. The REE pattern in lower Godavari sediments is influenced by the degree of source rock weathering. The light rare earth elements (LREE) content are indicating greater fractionation compared to the heavy rare earth elements (HREE). A striking relationship is observed between TiO₂ and gZREE content suggesting a strong control by LREE-enriched titaniferous minerals on REE chemistry. Shale-normalized REE pattern demonstrate a positive Eu anomaly, suggesting weathering of feldspar and their secondary products, which are enriched in Eu. Chondrite-normalised REE pattern is characteristic of felsic volcanic, granites and gnessic source rocks. Trace elemental compositions in sediments located near urban areas suggest influence of anthropogenic activity. Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) is high (avg. 65.76), suggesting a moderate chemical weathering environment. X-ray diffraction analysis of clay fraction shows predominance of clay minerals that are formed because of the chemical weathering of felsic rocks.     

PALEOCEANOGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF THE CENO-TETHYS: MICROPALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM PELAGIC SEDIMENTS IN THE YARLUNG ZANGBO SUTURE ZONE, SOUTHERN TIBET

PALEOCEANOGRAPHY AND EVOLUTION OF THE CENO-TETHYS: MICROPALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM PELAGIC SEDIMENTS IN THE YARLUNG ZANGBO SUTURE ZONE, SOUTHERN TIBET     

Separation of Clay Minerals from Host Sediments Using Cation Exchange Resins

Classic physical and chemical treatments applied to separating clay minerals from the host sediments are often difficult or aggressive for clay minerals. A technique using cation exchange resins (amberlite IRC-50H and amberlite IR-120) is used to separate clay minerals from the host sediments. The technique is based on the exchange of cations in the minerals that may be associated clay minerals in sediments, such as Ca and Mg from dolomite; Ca from calcite, gypsum and francolite with cations carried by resin radicals. The associated minerals such as gypsum, calcite, dolomite and francolite are removed in descending order. Separation of clay minerals using cation exchange resins is less aggressive than that by other classic treatments. The efficiency of amberlite IRC-50H in the removal of associated minerals is greater than that of amberlite IR-120.     

长试管静置沉降实验结果对湖盆细粒沉积纹层成因的启示*

沉积结构与沉积构造的研究是目前细粒沉积学中的重要内容。同时,富有机质泥/页岩的纹层成因也一直是困扰人们的难题。影响湖盆细粒沉积物纹层形成的因素很多,其中盐度、有机质含量是非常重要的因素,尤其是油页岩在淡水与咸水环境均可发育,其纹层的形成与水体盐度有何关系需要深入探讨。通过长试管静置实验,模拟并观察在静水条件下,黏土矿物、富有机质泥质沉积物在淡水、微咸水及咸水3种湖盆水体环境中的沉降过程与沉降速率,通过实验观察绘制沉降过程曲线并计算沉降速率。研究表明: 在淡水中富有机质泥的沉降速率明显高于黏土矿物的沉降速率;而在微咸水与咸水中,黏土矿物的沉降速率明显比富有机质泥要高;同时,2种类型的细粒沉积物在3类水体环境中各自的沉降速率也存在不同的规律。通过分析实验结果,指出在不同水介质条件下,絮凝作用类型的差异与浮力作用的影响是造成细粒沉积速率差异的主要原因。而有机质、黏土矿物及水体盐度共同控制细粒沉积物的沉降速率,一旦这些条件发生变化,那么就容易形成类似或不同的纹层,尤其是有机质丰度与盐度变化时,更容易形成不同成分的纹层。因此,油页岩的形成除需要相对安静水体环境外,还与有机质丰度、黏土矿物含量、絮凝过程及水体盐度变化的综合响应有关,而并非单独与水体盐度相关。另外,受沉积作用影响,湖盆不同区域的细粒沉积构造类型有差异。     

长试管静置沉降实验结果对湖盆细粒沉积纹层成因的启示*

沉积结构与沉积构造的研究是目前细粒沉积学中的重要内容。同时,富有机质泥/页岩的纹层成因也一直是困扰人们的难题。影响湖盆细粒沉积物纹层形成的因素很多,其中盐度、有机质含量是非常重要的因素,尤其是油页岩在淡水与咸水环境均可发育,其纹层的形成与水体盐度有何关系需要深入探讨。通过长试管静置实验,模拟并观察在静水条件下,黏土矿物、富有机质泥质沉积物在淡水、微咸水及咸水3种湖盆水体环境中的沉降过程与沉降速率,通过实验观察绘制沉降过程曲线并计算沉降速率。研究表明: 在淡水中富有机质泥的沉降速率明显高于黏土矿物的沉降速率;而在微咸水与咸水中,黏土矿物的沉降速率明显比富有机质泥要高;同时,2种类型的细粒沉积物在3类水体环境中各自的沉降速率也存在不同的规律。通过分析实验结果,指出在不同水介质条件下,絮凝作用类型的差异与浮力作用的影响是造成细粒沉积速率差异的主要原因。而有机质、黏土矿物及水体盐度共同控制细粒沉积物的沉降速率,一旦这些条件发生变化,那么就容易形成类似或不同的纹层,尤其是有机质丰度与盐度变化时,更容易形成不同成分的纹层。因此,油页岩的形成除需要相对安静水体环境外,还与有机质丰度、黏土矿物含量、絮凝过程及水体盐度变化的综合响应有关,而并非单独与水体盐度相关。另外,受沉积作用影响,湖盆不同区域的细粒沉积构造类型有差异。     

Microelements in fractions of bottom sediments of the Amur River

The grain size distribution and fraction composition of bottom sediments (BS) in the Amur River are studied. The total composition of sediments, their clay subfractions—water-peptizable (WPC) and aggregated (AC) clays—and residue after clay elutriation were analyzed. It has been established that contents of Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu in the clay subfractions are 2–4 times higher than in common bottom sediments and their residue left after the extraction of clay subfractions, confirming a significant role of clay minerals in the accumulation of elements mentioned above. It is shown that diatom algae participate in the accumulation and transport of Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu in the river water-suspended matter-bottom sediments (clay minerals) system. It has been established that high Zr concentrations in bottom sediments are related to the presence of zircon therein.     

桂林水南洞洞穴沉积物的古地磁记录及其古环境意义

通过对桂林水南洞2.5m厚的洞穴沉积物剖面的古地磁初步研究,其结果及地质证据表明该沉积剖面形成期可能与贾拉米洛正向期对应。根据磁化率、磁性矿物的特征和沉积学特征,对该地区这一地质时期的古环境变化提出以下认识:1.第三暖湿期,以钙华沉积为特征;2.第二干冷期,以含有少量钙质的黄褐色粘土为特征,并以含有高矫顽磁性矿物和低磁化率为特征;3.第二暖湿期,以互层的红褐色粘土、含高含量钙质的粘土或钙华为特征,并以含有低矫顽磁性矿物和高磁化率为特征;4.第一干冷期,以褐灰色粘土为特征,并以含有高矫顽磁性矿物和低磁化率为特征;5.第一暖湿期,以地下河沉积相(砂卵石为主)为特征。      

Fine-grained rocks: Shales or physilites

Fine-grained sediments and rocks containing a high percentage of phyllosilicate minerals have never been satisfactorily classified. Rocks names are poorly defined. The definition of many terms such as clay, clay mineral and shale are logically inconsistent. The major problems are caused by the assumption that there is a fixed relation between grain size and mineralogy and that structure is a basic parameter.Shallow-buried recent and ancient marine sediments with a high content of phyllosilicates commonly contain 60–80% clay and 20–40% silt. Phyllosilicates are present in approximately the same amounts as the clay-size material. Many fine-grained sediments that have been deeply buried commonly contain 30–40% clay; the phyllosilicate mineral content is in the range of 60–80%.In most fine-grained sediments, as deposited, the majority of the material is in the clay size. With burial and diagenesis, much of the clay-sized material grows to silt size. Thus, claystones are converted to siltstones.The term physil, an abbreviated form of phyllosilicate, is proposed to describe all sheet silicate minerals regardless of grain size. Physilites are rocks with a high content of physils. A simple classification is proposed in which size, mineralogy and structure are treated as independent variables.