The changing structure, distribution and spatial segregation of the unemployed and economically inactive in Great Britain

Key trends in labour demand and supply in the 1980s, and their interactions, had uneven impacts on different population sub-groups and areas in Britain. As the structure of employment shifted from manufacturing to services, and there was a growth in high level non-manual occupations at the expense of less skilled manual jobs, there was increasing concern that the ‘losers’ from these processes of economic and social change would become increasingly ‘isolated’—in socioeconomic and spatial terms. This paper traces the changing contours of the geography of unemployment and inactivity in Great Britain between 1981 and 1991, at the regional and local scales, using a variety of indicators of spatial distribution and segregation. While on some measures there is evidence that unemployment became more widespread, there is evidence that the extent and intensity of non-employment, and the segregation of those without jobs, were exacerbated over the decade.     

Labour market areas in Great Britain: Developments since 1961

Since employment problems vary widely between individual localities, the definition of local labour market areas is of considerable importance for employment policy. The paper describes the results of studies undertaken to identify changes in self-contained labour market areas (LMAs) throughout Great Britain between 1961 and 1971. LMAs are defined by the application of a gravity formula to commuter flows between areas. The number of LMAs fell by one third over the decade, reflecting longer average work journeys. LMAs tended to combine on stable and predictable lines, through the strengthening of their main previous commuter links. The studies also show marked contrasts in LMA patterns between the central and peripheral regions of Britain. Most of the conurbations comprise a number of separate LMAs (some of them extending far into the surrounding countryside) and thus cannot be regarded as unified labour markets. Over one half of the 25 largest LMAs are located outside the conurbations, representing large self-contained economic communities which are inadequately recognised in conventional geographical categories. The paper also notes recent changes in the Department of Employment's “travel to work areas” based on similar criteria. Finally, it seems likely that LMAs have continued to expand since 1971 as the result of interconnected developments in housing, employment and transport.     

Capital accumulation and regional development in France

The paper examines the interlinked development of social process and spatial form in the analysis of the changing patterns of production and employment in France. A major hypothesis is that specific phases of capital accumulation are associated with the use and production of specific forms of spatial diferentiation, and that recent changes in the location of employment in France are connected with the transition from one stage of capitalist development to another. Thus the changing spatial pattern of agricultural employment is seen as part of the decay of petty commodity production and the intergration of family farming into a new capitalist agriculture. Similarly, spatial change in manufacturing employment is also a component of industrial restructuring, and the associated development of new infrastrucural and labour requirements. The French state is one element of these processes and the article concludes with a case study of the relationships between capital accumulation and regional policy.     

Service sector employment in Merseyside

This paper reports the results of an analysis of service sector employment trends in Merseyside. The main data source was the Census of Employment covering the period 1971–1975; comparisons are made between Merseyside and national trends. The paper contains analyses of changes in industrial and male and female employment, tertiary and quaternary sector services, growth and declining industries, public and private sector employment, office employment and the components of employment change. Particular attention is paid to differences between the Inner City and Outer Areas of Merseyside. Employment decline was widespread in the service sector, as was also the case in manufacturing. Employment decline is likely to continue because of a number of adverse factors affecting the local economy. The paper concludes by describing a number of initiatives the public sector could take in association with private sector interests to promote the further development of service industries which are already established in Merseyside.     

Short-term electoral change in England, 1974

The study of short-term electoral change at a fine spatial scale is frequently hampered by the unavailability of suitable ecological data, let alone data on individuals. In Britain, most studies of change have used the measure of swing. An alternative is presented here, using national survey data to predict short-term electoral change in each English constituency. The deviations between the observed and predicted values are the dependent variables in an analysis of the ecological determinants of short-term change. Three independent variables are suggested: the neighbourhood effect; campaign spending; and constituency type (reflecting the spatial division of labour). All three contribute substantially in regression analyses, although some of the coefficients relating to campaign spending are difficult to interpret.     

Tertiarisation and socio-spatial differentiation in Wales

Processes of economic restructuring and social recomposition have been proceeding at an accelerated pace in Wales of late. This paper seeks to show that these changes, which began with a redistribution of manufacturing employment initially, but which have more recently been dominated by the restructuring of the tertiary sector, can best be understood as a regional effect of the growing spatial division of labour in the UK and internationally. Of special interest is the manner in which the dual spatial divisions in secondary and tertiary economic activity produce new combinations of spatial and social differentiation at the sub-regional level.     

The revival of rural areas in advanced economies: a review of some causes and consequences

Recent years have seen a substantial growth of population in the rural areas of the United States and Western Europe. This is explored with particular reference to census evidence relating to Great Britain. Two sets of explanations are examined. The first relates to the exercise of residential preferences unconstrained by job location, and it is notable that the retired and the otherwise non-employed have increased substantially in numbers over the past 15–20 years. The second explanation focuses on employment relocation. Much resource-based, tertiary and, especially, manufacturing employment has grown in non-metropolitan areas. British and European evidence shows the manufacturing shift to have been substantial and it is suggested that this, coupled with (pre-)retirement migration and associated multiplier developments, may explain much of the counter-urbanisation that we are witnessing. The paper briefly explores some consequence of these trends, relating to the duplication of infrastructure, pressure on rural land and housing, and social change.     

Factors affecting the productivity of manufacturing sector in Sri Lanka: a spatial analysis

Two indexes of productivity — labour productivity and capital productivity — have been employed to measure and map productivity patterns of manufacturing industries in Sri Lanka. There exist extensive regional differences in the levels of productivity. Regression results show that the spatial variation of labour productivity is positively related to capital intensity and the level of urbanization and is negatively related to the nature of enterprises. Capital intensity and level of urbanisation have a negative influence on the capital productivity. The selected five variables in the regression analyses explain 65% of the spatial variation of labour productivity and 39% of capital productivity.     

Local labour market analysis: It's importance and a possible approach

This paper, written from a British perspective, presents a case for more local, as opposed to regional, economic research and argues for the central importance of the local labour market. Such research should direct its attention to the employment decision making of employers and employees. Alternative definitions of the local labour market are discussed, favouring that of M.W. Smart as the most appropriate. The importance of corporate spatial structure, and the labour force adjustment methods available to individual firms faced with declining product demand are discussed. Finally, a possible approach to local labour market analysis is outlined, based on the use of company personnel records.     

Geographic analysis of manufacturing industry in Saudi Arabia

The study focuses on the analysis of manufacturing industry in Saudi Arabia by examining development, structure and spatial distribution. The analysis has shown that Saudi manufacturing is basically of recent development and is highly capital- and energy-intensive, particularly the hydrocarbon-based groups. Perhaps the most conspicuous weakness of Saudi industrialization is the almost total dependence on expatriate labour. Foreign capital and expertise share in the building and development of the industrial sector by providing technical, managerial, and marketing skills. Saudi industry is heavily subsidized by the government, and the public sector plays a commanding role in industrial development. Large-scale basic industries are owned and run by the government, while light manufacturing of the import-substitution type is dominated by the private sector. One of the main characteristics of manufacturing industry is that it is scantily diversified, modestly concentrated and remarkably linked geographically but not functionally or structurally. Although the authorities are exerting tremendous efforts to achieve a regional balance in industrial development, Saudi manufacturing industry is significantly polarized, urban-oriented and highly associated with the major axes of population scatter. Like all developing countries beginning to industrialize, Saudi manufacturing industry faces certain problems which have to be resolved so as to lay the foundations for a sound and prosperous industrial future. The paper goes on to indicate problems and to suggest solutions.     

Regional Population and Employment Change in Australia 1991–2001: Inertia in the Face of Rapid Change?

Analyses of the patterns of national population change have been influenced by the US experience where major differences between a older north and a newer south are prominent in many studies. The current paper argues that these perspectives overlook some inertia in the pattern of population and jobs. Drawing upon US and European experience the paper explores the pattern of change in Australia. There it finds that population has favoured newer locations but that gains in share of national population have not been large. At the same time some of the older regions have maintained population share, or at worst recorded small declines. That broad insight is enriched by sectoral analysis where it is clear that only the retail sector has experienced the large gains in new regions; employment change in other sectors showed the links with population change are weak. The paper concludes that simple notions of new region population and employment gains are oversimplified and overlook the substantial development around established centres. In particular it is possible that the old regions are re-structuring their spatial form and spilling over statistical boundaries and so actually maintaining established role in national networks.     

Public policy and residential provision for the elderly

In recent years there has been a growing concern about the best type of residential care for the increasing elderly population in Britain. This paper examines the response of the public, private and voluntary sectors to the provision of residential care. It looks at the relative levels, spatial variations in the levels and changes in the proportions of provision by each of these sectors for the years 1981 and 1984. The levels of provision are related to indices of need, available resources and the political disposition of each local authority area. This paper then focuses on the variations in the growth of the private-sector provision of residential homes. It was found that the metropolitan districts had the greatest proportion of voluntary-sector provision; and the traditional seaside retirement counties such as Devon and Lancashire had the highest levels of and experienced the greatest growth in private residential care. The key variables in explaining variations in the mix of provision between areas were indices of need and resources. This study has established that there are great regional variations in the mix of the different sectors of residential care, although it is not possible to offer a total explanation of these differentials. In Britain, there are substantial inequalities in terms of the choice of types of provision for the elderly population which have significant implications for local authority policy.     

Work–life reconciliation: Including children in the conversation

This paper seeks to further understanding about children’s experiences and knowledges of home and employment reconciliation. The paper, which draws on empirical research with children living in socio-economically diverse areas of North West England, makes three contributions. Firstly, it argues that children must be included in studies of work-balance, as the strategies parents adopt affect the way children are socialised towards appropriate divisions of domestic, caring and labour force responsibilities. Secondly, it contributes to research which considers the temporal and spatial boundaries between home and paid work to add the verbal dimension; demonstrating that children have varying levels of conversational interaction with their parents about employment in the home sphere. Finally, the paper contends that these distinct approaches to the verbal and spatial boundaries of production and reproduction are influenced by class dispositions, localised parenting cultures and constructions of childhood. This results in some children being shielded from the realities of paid work, whilst others are socialised to cope with labour market instability.     

Industrial and geographical mobility of workers during industry decline: The Swedish and German shipbuilding industries 1970–2000

This article follows the industry employment histories of all individuals who at some point have been affiliated with the declining German or the dismantling Swedish shipbuilding industry during 1970–2000. We analyse the situation of the individual workers leaving shipbuilding, investigating the extent to which they were employed at all, tended to move to related sectors within or outside the region, and whether such moves were beneficial for the individuals. Combining insights from labour geography and redundancy studies with evolutionary economic geography, we find remarkably similar results for the West German and Swedish cases. Our findings indicate a notable impact of the regional industry structure on the labour market outcomes for workers leaving shipbuilding. This suggests that more attention should be devoted to the specific structures of the absorptive capacity of regional labour markets. The findings are discussed within the context of a mature industry.     

Regional Population and Employment Change in Australia 1991–2001: Inertia in the Face of Rapid Change?

Analyses of the patterns of national population change have been influenced by the US experience where major differences between a older north and a newer south are prominent in many studies. The current paper argues that these perspectives overlook some inertia in the pattern of population and jobs. Drawing upon US and European experience the paper explores the pattern of change in Australia. There it finds that population has favoured newer locations but that gains in share of national population have not been large. At the same time some of the older regions have maintained population share, or at worst recorded small declines. That broad insight is enriched by sectoral analysis where it is clear that only the retail sector has experienced the large gains in new regions; employment change in other sectors showed the links with population change are weak. The paper concludes that simple notions of new region population and employment gains are oversimplified and overlook the substantial development around established centres. In particular it is possible that the old regions are re-structuring their spatial form and spilling over statistical boundaries and so actually maintaining established role in national networks.     

Employment in retailing: A case study of employment in suburban shopping centres

There have been many studies of the retail industry in recent years, and of the impact that retailing has had on the spatial arrangement of urban areas and on consumer behaviour. Little attention has been paid, however, to employment in retailing, which is disturbing in view of its growing importance and its rapidly changing nature and composition. This paper examines the nature of the broad structural changes within the industry, and investigates their spatial consequences through a case study of employment generation within a system of suburban retail centres in Canberra, Australia. It is shown that the evolution of suburban centres, particularly those of a regional variety, has had an important and enriching impact on the suburban labour market. The regional centres are also seen to be the focus of the major structural employment changes currently affecting the retail industry. This has some important implications for urban planning.     

Regional and structural components of South Australian population change

The spatial dynamics and structural changes in population growth in South Australia between 1961 and 1971 are investigated using a model developed by PARIS (1970). The derived components are cross-matched with rates of natural increase, migration and levels of regional development. The observed relationships are interpreted as effects of differential regional development acting as a field of forces to distort even population distribution. The approach is deemed suitable for estimating regional population in regard to economic potential.     

中国东部土壤温度、湿度变化的长期趋势及其与气候背景的联系

利用1971-2000年中国722站逐月的土壤温度资料和1981-1998年178站逐旬的土壤湿度观测资料,分析了中国东部土壤温度、湿度变化的长期趋势及其与气温、降水变化的关系.结果表明:①我国东部土壤温度的变化在年际一年代际时间尺度上存在明显的区域性差异,其中东北地区表现为持续上升型,而西北东部一华北、江淮和西南一华南地区均为先降后升型;②1970-2000年代,土壤温度的变化在东北以及西北东部一华北地区有显著的上升趋势,而在江淮和西南一华南地区,总体而言变化趋势不显著.此外,1980-1990年代,各区域土壤湿度的变化趋势均不显著;③在年际一年代际尺度上,各区域土壤温度和气温的变化具有显著的正相关关系,而土壤湿度与土壤温度的变化普遍呈负相关关系,其中尤以西北东部-华北地区最为显著.而在较长的时间尺度上,土壤湿度与降水的变化仍然存在较好的正相关关系.     

Regional policy in Malaysia

The Malaysian economy, which in the colonial era was largely dependent on the primary sector, has been transformed towards a more balanced sectoral composition of output and employment accompanied by a substantial rise in per capita incomes since independence. Although the quality of life of the people has been improved in all regions, the impact of regional development policies has not been sufficient to improve the relative position of the less-developed regions and to counterbalance a growing spatial concentration of modern sector activities and population. To achieve this target the dispersal of manufacturing industries and modern services has to be enforced.