Nanoscale metals in Earthgas and mobile forms of metals in overburden in wide-spaced regional exploration for giant deposits in overburden terrains

This paper describes the use of NAnoscale Metals in EarthGas (NAMEG) and MObile forms of MEtals in Overburden (MOMEO) methods in regional scale geochemical exploration for giant deposits in terrains covered by overburden. These methods are based on the premise that gases generated from the earth's interior can not only transport mobile forms of elements from an ore deposit and its geochemical halos to the surface to form a local anomaly, but also transport them from distinct bedrock “geochemical blocks” hosting large and giant ore deposits and give rise to large regional geochemical anomalies and geochemical provinces at the surface.Regional NAMEG and MOMEO surveys for giant gold deposits were carried out in Shandong Province, where the largest gold deposits in China are found, and in the Muruntau region of the Kyzylkum Desert, Uzbekistan, one of the world's largest gold ore provinces.In Shandong Province, where most of the area is covered by complex overburden, large regional anomalies in earthgas and water-extractable Au were delineated over and around the giant gold deposits. For many trace elements, the anomalies are larger in area and have greater contrast than those from other methods. High concentration of water soluble Au extends into the southern area covered by transported overburden, suggesting that this region may have potential for the discovery of new concealed gold deposits. The anomalous provinces of Au in both earthgas and water soluble salts coincide with a deep fault, supporting the idea that the deep fault is the main conduit of Au from the interior.In the central Kyzylkum Desert, nearly all Au-hosting rocks are covered by sedimentary sequences overlain by desert sand. Gold and As anomalies over Muruntau and Kokpatas gold deposits have contrasts ranging from 2 to 400 times background. Strong anomalies were also discovered in the south of the Muruntau region, suggesting a promising area for the discovery of new giant gold deposits.     

寻找和识别隐伏大型特大型矿床的勘查地球化学理论方法与应用

为了在广大覆盖区寻找隐伏大型特大型矿床的需要,我们探索研制了能在短期内以较少的费用迅速覆盖广大覆盖区的能觉察地下深部发出的极微弱直接找矿信息的战略性勘查地球化学新方法—金属活动态测量和地球气微量金属测量。这两种方法在各种景观覆盖区被广泛地加以试验与应用。其结果表明:(1)隐伏大型特大型矿床四周巨大的地球化学模式可以被各种营力搬运至地表,地气对超微量金属的搬运是厚覆盖区隐伏矿床在地表形成叠加含量地球化学异常的主要原因。(2)在覆盖厚度从几米至三、四百米都可以发现清晰的异常显示,因此为厚覆盖区找矿提供了强有利的工具;(3)地气与元素活动态不仅存在局部异常,而且在大型特大型矿床四周存在区域异常和地球化学省,用很稀的采样网就可以捕捉到这种大规模异常,因此这两种方法可以应用于大面积覆盖区的战略评价中;(4)地气和元素活动态所反应的指标和适用性在不同的景观、不同的矿床类型上是不同的,应根据不同的条件选择应用最佳的方法指标。地气与元素活动态配合使用所获得的深部矿化信息更稳定更可靠。(5)利用元素活动态可以近似定量估计或预测可被成矿利用的金属供应量,据此推测某一地区潜在的资源储量。     

金属活动态测量在冲积平原覆盖区隐伏矿的试验研究——以安徽无为龙潭头硫铁矿为例

随着出露区矿产资源的日益枯竭,覆盖区已逐渐成为矿产勘查的重点。传统化探方法难以在覆盖区发挥作用,而金属活动态测量法可以提取与深部隐伏矿体有关的矿化信息。该方法在冲积平原覆盖区还缺乏相关研究。以安徽无为龙潭头隐伏硫铁矿为例,开展土壤全量和金属活动态测量的试验研究。结果显示:土壤全量测量在隐伏矿体上方无异常显示。金属活动态测量中,Cu和S元素的水溶态,Fe元素的铁锰氧化物态和吸附态均呈现出高异常值,异常衬度达到2及以上。其中S元素的水溶态异常最明显,含量峰值达14.8×10^-9,背景值为4.81×10^-9,异常衬度3.08。其次,Cu元素的有机态和S元素的铁锰氧化物态呈现较高异常,异常衬度1.5以上。金属活动态测量提取的异常均位于隐伏矿体上方,且与赋矿主断裂空间关系密切。本次试验研究表明,金属活动态测量可以有效提取与龙潭头隐伏矿床有关的地球化学异常,该方法在冲积平原覆盖区应当有着较好的应用前景,但仍需要更进一步地研究,以建立相应的方法技术流程与标准。     

新疆金窝子矿区深穿透地球化学对比研究

在新疆金窝子金矿区,利用2种深穿透地球化学方法--金属活动态提取方法和电地球化学方法进行对比试验,结果表明这些方法可以在隐伏矿上方有效地发现异常.在干旱荒漠区由于氧化作用和蒸发作用强烈,地表形成氧化地球化学障和大量盐类的蒸发地球化学障,这些地球化学障可以捕获由深部迁移至地表的含矿信息,因此,用深穿透地球化学的铁锰氧化物膜提取和盐类蒸发障良好导电性能的电提取可以有效地指示矿体.     

深穿透地球化学方法在山东大尹格庄金矿区试验研究

山东大尹格庄金矿埋深距地表距离大于200 m,属典型的隐伏矿床。选择大尹格庄金矿开展金属活动态测量、地球气测量、地电化学测量、土壤全量测量的方法,以检验深穿透地球化学方法勘查隐伏矿的有效性。试验结果显示:在埋深达300 m的隐伏金矿体上方发现了较明显的地球气、水提取与地电化学Au异常,异常与已知金矿体位置吻合程度较高,而土壤全量测量只在蚀变带头部有所反映,显示了深穿透地球化学方法在隐伏矿勘查中的良好应用前景。     

巨型矿床与大型矿集区勘查地球化学

巨型矿床和大型矿集区有着巨量的成矿物质供应与聚集,表现为地壳上存在某些成矿元素含量高度聚集的地球化学块体．地球化学块体中只有一部分呈活动态易被各种流体携带的金属才能逐步浓集成矿,并在大矿、巨矿和矿集区周围留下一系列套合的地球化学模式谱系。文中阐述了发现和识别大矿、巨矿和矿集区四周套合地球化学模式的采样系统,研制了能觉察地下深部发出极微弱直接找矿信息的深穿透地球化学方法－－金属活动太测量与地球气纳微     

Geochemical challenges of diverse regolith-covered terrains for mineral exploration in China

In recent years mineral exploration has concentrated on concealed deposits in regolith-covered terrains. In China, the regolith-covered landscapes mainly include desert windblown sand basins, desert peneplains, semi-arid grassland, loess plateaus, forestry land, alluvial plains and laterite terrains. These diverse regolith-covered areas represent geochemical challenges for mineral exploration in China. This paper provides an overview of recent progress on mechanisms of metal dispersion from the buried ore deposits through the transported cover to the surface and penetrating geochemical methods to detect the anomalies. Case studies show that, in arid and semi-arid desert sand-covered terrains, sampling of fine-fraction (− 120 mesh, < 0.125 mm) clay-rich horizon soil is cost-effective for regional geochemical surveys for sandstone-type uranium, gold, and base metal deposits. Fine-fraction sampling, selective-leaching and overburden drilling geochemical methods can effectively indicate the 210 gold ore body at Jinwozi goldfield. In alluvium-covered terrains, fine-grained soil sampling (− 200 mesh, < 0.074 mm) combined with selective leaching geochemistry shows clear ring-shaped anomalies of Cu and Ni over the Zhouan concealed Cu–Ni deposit. In laterite-covered terrains, the anomalies determined by the fine-fraction soils and selective leaching of absorbed metals on coatings of Fe–Mn oxides coincide well with the concealed deposit over the Yueyang ore deposits at the Zijin Au–Cu–Ag field. Nanoparticles of hexagonal crystals mainly native copper, gold and alloys of Cu–Fe, Cu–Fe–Mn, Cu–Ti, and Cu–Au were observed in gases, soils and ores using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The findings imply that nanoparticles of gold and copper may migrate through the transported cover to the surface. Uranium is converted to uranyl ions [UO₂^2 +] under oxidizing conditions when migrating from ore bodies to the surface. The uranyl ions are absorbed on clay minerals, because clay layers have a net negative charge, which needs to be balanced by interlayer cations. Nanoparticles of Au and Cu and ion complexes of U are more readily absorbed onto fine fractions of soils containing clays, colloids, oxides and organic matters. Thus, fine-grained soils enriched with clays, oxides and colloids are useful media for regional geochemical surveys in regolith-covered terrains and in sedimentary basins. Fine-fraction soil sampling combined with selective leaching geochemistry is effective for finding concealed ore bodies in detailed surveys. Penetrating geochemistry at surface sampling provides cost-effective mineral exploration methods for delineation of regional and local targets in transported cover terrains.     

战术性与战略性的深穿透地球化学方法

多年来地球化学方法主要用于圈定出露及亚出露矿化四周的地表次生分散晕和分散流找矿或圈定盲矿上方地表的原生晕找矿,取得极大效果,但对被厚层运积物或厚层成矿后沉积岩或火山岩埋藏的矿体,由于地表次生异常与原生晕皆被掩蔽而显得无能为力。８０年代以来发展了一些新的能有效探索被厚达数百米运积层及成矿后沉积岩或火山岩埋藏的矿体的“深穿透”地球化学方法,包括澳大利亚的ＭＭＩ方法,加拿大与美国的酶提取方法,前苏联的ＣＨＩＭ方法,瑞典的ＧＥＯＧＡＳ方法及中国的ＮＡＭＥＧ与ＭＯＭＥＯ方法。这些方法大多数是用于详查中,用在地质预测认为深部有远景或地球物理方法发现深部有某种异常,但又无法取得可靠的矿化直接证据的地区,而中国的ＮＡＭＥＧ与ＭＯＭＥＯ方法则既是战术性的,又可在找寻隐伏的大型、特大型甚至巨型矿床上发挥巨大的战略作用。文中列举了在乌兹别克斯坦穆龙套巨型金矿及澳大利亚奥林匹克坝巨型铜铀金银矿周围进行的战略性深穿透ＮＡＭＥＧ与ＭＯＭＥＯ测量的结果,笔者认为这种战略性与战术性深穿透地球化学方法的发展将会加速在隐伏区找到大型至巨型矿的进程,并为勘查地球化学在２１世纪开拓广阔的新的研究领域。     

Leaching of mobile forms of metals in overburden: development and application

A procedure for sequential leaching of various mobile forms of metals in overburden (MOMEO) has been developed. Previous work showed that selective extraction techniques developed for base metals are ineffective for Au extraction. The mobile forms of Au in overburden occur not only as ionic or complex forms but also as ultrafine particles (submicron to nanometer) dispersed in, or bound onto, water-soluble salts, colloidal particles, organic matter, iron and manganese oxides or clay minerals. The conventional approach of partial leach methods, developed for base metals, involves using appropriate extractants to attack the host materials and release the trapped mobile forms of metals into solution. But the ultrafine Au particles thus released from the host are either insoluble in the mild extractant or reabsorbed by colloids. Therefore a two-stage selective leaching scheme has been developed for Au, a sequential leaching procedure to destroy the host materials, followed by a second treatment to place the Au released from the first stage into solution for analysis. This method has been used widely in detailed, regional and strategic exploration in overburden terrains. Case studies from different climatic and geographic settings show that selective leaching of optimum mobile forms of metals in different settings can be effective in finding indications of mineralization. In temperate alluvial terrains, water-extractable and adsorbed or exchangeable forms of metals give the most prominent expression. In arid sandy desert terrains, water-extractable metals and metals in oxides are the best indicators. In cold grasslands, organically bound and water-extractable metals are the most effective indicators of mineralization at depth.     

深穿透地球化学对比研究两例

为了寻找隐伏矿床,近些年提出了深穿透地球化学的概念和发展了深穿透地球化学方法。国际勘查地球化学家协会于1997年开始组织实施了“深穿透地球化学对比计划”。这里给出了四种深穿透地球化学方法,包括金属活动态提取方法、酶提取方法、活动金属离子法和电地球化学方法,在中国和美国的两个隐伏矿进行了对比试验,结果表明,深穿透地球化学方法可以在隐伏矿上方有效地发现异常。在干旱荒漠区,由于氧化作用和蒸发作用强烈,地表形成氧化地球化学障和大量盐类的蒸发地球化学障,这些地球化学障可以将深部迁移至地表的含矿信息捕获。因此,用深穿透地球化学的铁锰氧化物膜提取和盐类蒸发障良好导电性能的电提取,可以有效地指示矿体。中国的深穿透地球化学方法在美国内华达Mike金铜矿的效果要优于加拿大的酶提取(EnzymeLeach)和澳大利亚的活动金属离子法(MMI)。     

滇中铅锌矿床地球化学与成因研究

滇中地层铅锌丰度高,成矿元素对于地层有继承性和一致性;硫同位素分散,富重硫;铅同位素稳定,多为单阶段演化正常铅,模式年龄与地层时代大体一致,矿质来自地层,矿床为层控型。同生沉积形成矿源层,后期改造(叠加)形成矿体。为中低温度的地下水热液成矿。     

内蒙古半干旱草原区隐伏矿地球化学勘查方法试验

在内蒙古半干旱草原区准苏吉花隐伏铜钼矿上方开展了土壤细粒级全量测量和金属活动态测量两种地球化学勘查方法的试验工作,结果显示,两种方法圈定的成矿元素主体异常分布范围与深部隐伏矿体的分布较为一致,表明土壤细粒级全量测量和金属活动态测量可以有效地指示隐伏铜钼矿体,可作为该景观区寻找隐伏铜钼矿的有效手段。     

Environmental geochemistry of the Guanajuato Mining District, Mexico

The Guanajuato Mining District, once one of the major silver producers in the world, has been exploited for silver and gold from low-sulfidation quartz- and calcite-rich epithermal veins since 1548. Currently, there are some 150 million tonnes of low-grade ore piles and mine-waste material (mostly tailings) piles, covering a surface area of 15 to 20 km² scattered in a 100-km² region around the city of Guanajuato. Most of the historic tailings piles were not deposited as formal tailings impoundments. They were deposited as simple valley-filling piles without concern for environmental issues. Most of those historical tailings piles are without any vegetation cover and undergo strong eolian and hydrologic erosion, besides the natural leaching during the rainy season (which can bring strong thunderstorms and flash flows). There is public concern about possible contamination of the local aquifer with heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, As and Se) derived from the mining activities.Experimental and field data from this research provide strong geochemical evidence that most of the mine-waste materials derived from the exploitation of the epithermal veins of the region have very low potential for generation of acid mine drainage due to the high carbonate/sulfide ratio (12:1), and very low potential for leaching of heavy metals into the groundwater system. Furthermore, geochemical evidence (experimental and modeled) indicates that natural processes, like metal adsorption onto Fe-oxy-hydroxides surfaces, control the mobility of dissolved metals. Stable isotope data from surface water, groundwater wells (150-m depth) and mine-water (300- to 500-m depth) define an evaporation line (δD=5.93 δ¹⁸O=13.04), indicating some deep infiltration through a highly anisotropic aquifer with both evaporated water (from the surface reservoirs) and meteoric water (not evaporated). Zinc concentrations in groundwater (0.03 to 0.5 ppm) of the alluvial aquifer, some 15 km from the mineralized zone, are generally higher than Zn concentrations in experimental tailings leachates that average less than 0.1 ppm. Groundwater travel time from the mineralized area to the alluvial valley is calculated to range from 50 to several hundred years. Thus, although there has been enough time for Zn sourced from the tailings to reach the valley, Zn concentrations in valley groundwater could be due to natural dissolution processes in the deep portions of the epithermal veins.     

National-Scale Geochemical Mapping Projects in China

Regional, national and global scale geochemical mapping projects have been carried out in China since the late 1970s, due to the development of cost‐effective, low detection limit analytical methods. These projects have provided a huge mass of high‐quality, informative and comparable data for mineral resource exploration and are now making contributions to environmental assessment. In this paper, four national‐scale geochemical mapping projects are described. (1) The Regional Geochemistry‐National Reconnaissance Project (RGNR project), which is China's largest national geochemical mapping project, has covered 6 million km² of upland regions since 1978. Generally, stream sediment samples were collected at a density of 1/km² and four samples were composited into one sample and analysed for thirty‐nine elements. (2) The deep‐penetrating geochemical mapping project (DEEPMAP Project) has been conducted since 1994 in covered terrains, including sedimentary basins, at a density of 1 sample per 100 km² with thirty to seventy elements determined per sample. In the past 10 years, an area of approximately 800 000 km² has been covered and this project has played an important role in finding sandstone‐type uranium deposits in basins. (3) The seventy‐six geochemical element mapping project (76 GEM project) has been carried out since 1999 and involved the collection of stream sediment samples from the RGNR project targets which were analysed for seventy‐six elements. Samples from each 1:50 000 map sheet were composited into one analytical sample (approximately one composite sample per 400 km²). Approximately 1 million km² have been surveyed to date. (4) The multi‐purpose eco‐geochemical mapping project has been conducted since 1999 in Quaternary plain areas for environmental and agricultural applications. Surface soils (depths from 0–20 cm) were collected at a density of one sample per km², and four samples were composited into one for analysis. Deep soils (from a depth of 150 to 200 cm) were collected at a density of one sample per 4 km² and four samples were composited into one analytical sample. All the composite samples were analysed for fifty‐four elements.     

Mineral deposits and Cu–Zn–As dispersion–contamination in stream sediments from the semiarid Coquimbo Region,Chile

This paper presents Cu–Zn–As geochemical data from stream sediment surveys carried out in the three main watersheds of the Coquimbo Region of Chile. This mountainous semiarid realm occupies an area of 40,656 km² between 29° and 32°S. Given that the area has a long historical record of mining activities, important environmental disturbances were expected. However, despite the detection of three major geochemical anomalies for Cu, Zn, or As, only one can be unmistakably linked to the development of mining–metal recovery procedures (Andacollo–Panulcillo). An investigation of the other two anomalies (Elqui and Hurtado) reveals three major causes that fully or partially account for them: (1) the type of ore deposit and associated hydrothermal alteration; (2) the regional structural setting (intensity of fracturing); and (3) climate–landscape. Cu–Au–As epithermal deposits/prospects along the so-called El Indio belt are here regarded as the sources of both the Elqui and Hurtado anomalies. The strong advanced argillic alteration present in some of the epithermal deposits/prospects of the El Indio belt may have induced the loss of the buffering capacity of rocks, and therefore favoured metal dispersion during later oxidation–leaching of sulphides. This applies to the Elqui and Hurtado anomalies. Conversely, given that the potassic, propylitic and phyllic alterations do not affect the buffering capacity of rocks, only minor metal dispersion is observed in relation to the Los Pelambres porphyry copper deposit. Besides, the epithermal belt is located within a highly fractured Andean domain (3,000–4,000 m of altitude), which may have conditioned the fast unroofing of ore deposits, contributed to enhanced circulation of meteoric waters, and eventually, to strong oxidation, and leaching of metals. Metal dispersion is aggravated during rainy years in response to strong El Niño episodes.     

森林沼泽区从区域到矿区有效寻找隐伏矿的地球化学方法组合

黑龙江省分布大面积森林沼泽,森林沼泽区地质工作困难且找矿效果差,笔者采用金属活动态测量方法,在“迅速掌握全局,逐步缩小靶区”战略思想的指导下,依次开展了超低密度（1个样/100 km2）地球化学调查→甚低密度（1个样/16 km2）地球化学调查→低密度（1个样/km2）地球化学详细测量→高密度（18个样/km2）异常定位测量等逐步缩小靶区工作。提交的部分靶区找矿效果较好,在地表覆盖层下部及深部发现Pb Zn工业矿体。研究总结的地球化学方法组合在森林沼泽区具有较好的找矿效果,该方法组合对今后这类地区的地球化学调查工作有较好的借鉴和参考意义。     

东准噶尔卡拉麦里金矿带构造控矿特征及有利度分析

东准噶尔卡拉麦里金矿带是新疆重要的成矿带之一,已经发现的金矿床（点）有100多处。区内断裂构造极为发育,主要的断裂构造有卡拉麦里深大断裂、清水—苏吉泉断裂和库普大断裂,由大断裂派生的次级断裂广泛发育,与金的成矿关系极为密切。在已有研究的基础上,借助遥感解译技术,在数理统计的基础上,总结了卡拉麦里金矿带构造控矿特征,并初步进行了有利度分析。结果表明：北西—北西西向的断裂为该成矿带内极为有利的控矿构造,其控制了成矿带的展布,与其共生的次级断裂和派生断裂为容矿构造,控制着矿床（点）的位置。北东—北东东和北东对金矿的控矿作用不明显。金矿床（点）多分布在5~15个/100 km²的密度区内。线性构造交汇点密度高峰值为25个/100 km²,随着密度值的增高,金矿床（点）逐趋减少。     

河北省承德县磴西—烟筒山一带银铅锌多金属矿地质特征及矿床成因

河北省承德县磴西—烟筒山一带银铅锌多金属矿位于温家沟—东山断裂带内,区内已知有姑子沟银铅锌矿、富豪银矿,以及新发现的富含金银的锌多金属矿.矿体多为隐伏矿体,受断裂破碎带的控制;矿体呈单脉、复脉状产出,有分支复合特点,银-铅锌-金等多金属矿共生;同位素地球化学特征和包裹体地球化学特征显示,成矿元素、硫和热液主要为地壳深部...     

云南会泽铅锌矿床构造控矿规律及其隐伏矿预测

对会泽铅锌矿成矿构造体系、构造控矿型式进行研究，认为小江深断裂带和曲靖-昭通隐伏断裂带为矿床形成提供了有利的构造背景，矿床严格受北东向压扭性断裂控制，“阶梯状”和“多字型”构造是矿区具有普遍性的控矿构造型式，北东构造带是主要的成矿构造体系，提出麒麟厂矿床主矿体向南西向侧伏，通过工程验证新增铅锌矿金属储量近100万t。     

The use of fluorine as a pathfinder for volcanic-hosted massive sulfide ore deposits

A multi-element geochemical study of the wall rocks of intermediate to felsic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits was carried out to identify pathfinder elements which significantly enlarge the size of exploration targets. Drill core samples from the Crandon massive sulfide deposit in Wisconsin, and outcrop samples from the United Verde and Iron King deposits in Arizona, and from the Captains Flat, Mt. Costigan, and Wiseman Creek deposits in New South Wales, Australia were analyzed. Because anomalously high fluorine values have been described in several volcanic-hosted ore systems, fluorine was included in the study.All of the above deposits have patterns of fluorine enrichment around ore. Drill core samples from two noneconomic prospects within ten miles of the Crandon deposit contain background to only weakly anomalous fluorine values.At the large Crandon deposit (> 50 million tons of zinc, copper ore), fluorine enrichment extends approximately 320 m into the footwall rocks and at least 220 m into the hanging wall rocks. At the large United Verde deposit (> 50 million tons of copper, zinc ore), fluorine enrichment is recognizable in the footwall rocks at least 650 m from the ore. At the smaller Iron King deposit (five million tons production of zinc, lead, copper ore), fluorine enrichment extends for a distance of approximately 60 m into the footwall rocks. At the small deposits in New South Wales (< five million tons production of zinc, lead, copper ore), fluorine enrichment is easily recognizable, but with the samples collected, the limits of the anomalous patterns cannot be defined.Fluorine occurs in some hydrothermal systems unassociated with mineralization and is therefore not a specific signature of ore-forming processes. From the work completed, many massive sulfide deposits in volcanic rocks occur in hydrothermal systems which contain fluorine. On the basis of the data presented, if anomalously high fluorine values do exist in an exploration search area, the chances of finding a massive sulfide ore deposit are improved.Genetic models for volcanic-hosted massive sulfide ore deposits have concentrated on rock textures, alteration mineralogy, and geochemistry of the ore metals. From the data presented, fluorine should be considered as a component of massive sulfide systems in intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks, and should be considered as a possible complexing agent for the ore metals.