Methodological Issues in Researching Migration

Population geographers should consider a mixed methods approach to thestudy of migration. This methodological position arises in response to the challenges of contemporary social theory. It is argued that application of structuration theory favours use of a diversity of methods to investigate the recursive relationship between agency and structure. Similarly a realist stance, as advocated by Sayer (1992), leads to a mixing of methods in order to carry out the synthesising tasks expected of geographers. Postmodernism, when interpreted as method, also points the researcher to consider adopting flexible research practices in order to capture the multiplicities of meaning associated with migration and place. These points are illustrated by a case study of migration to and from Hong Kong.     

(Re)theorising population geography

"Population geography has become separated from other branches of human geography by not engaging strongly with recent debates in social theory. The reasons for this partly lie in the wealth of data that population geographers have available to them concerning their major interest--demographic events....A case is made here for population geographers to consider in particular three areas of social theoretic debate--social construction theories, realist ideas on extensive and intensive research, and the politics of position. Suggestions are made as to what a (re)theorised population geography might look like."     

The Implications of Psychoanalysis for Qualitative Methodology: The Case of Interviews and Narrative Data Analysis*

In this article I ask to what extent geographers can draw on psychoanalytic theory when examining interview data. I consider Freud's theory of the mind and its unconscious processes to ask how bringing the unconscious to bear on identity studies potentially impacts qualitative research on subjectivity and identification. Existing geographic debate on psychoanalytic theory and methods provides an organizing framework for my argument. Although the article advocates an ontology of the psychoanalytic subject, I suggest that researchers must avoid psychoanalyzing research subjects. This distinction limits the ways in which scholars can “read” personal narratives for unconscious processes.     

Russia's Far East: A Region at Risk

Abstract

In this article I ask to what extent geographers can draw on psychoanalytic theory when examining interview data. I consider Freud's theory of the mind and its unconscious processes to ask how bringing the unconscious to bear on identity studies potentially impacts qualitative research on subjectivity and identification. Existing geographic debate on psychoanalytic theory and methods provides an organizing framework for my argument. Although the article advocates an ontology of the psychoanalytic subject, I suggest that researchers must avoid psychoanalyzing research subjects. This distinction limits the ways in which scholars can “read” personal narratives for unconscious processes.

     

THE POTENTIAL OF MAIL SURVEYS IN GEOGRAPHY: SOME EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE*

Faced with soaring survey costs, geographers may increasingly consider mail or telephone surveys as alternatives to in-person interviews. This study goes beyond comparisons of response rates to analyze possible biases of administration methods in geographic studies. An empirical comparison between an in-person interview survey and two mail surveys of recent home buyers’ housing preferences revealed that the mail surveys provided better representation of this population, as they had a higher completion rate (though lower response rate). While respondent attributes differed across administration modes, no direct effects of administration method on responses were found. Mail surveys appear to be a viable alternative to personal interviews in a wider set of cases than geographers usually assume, though more empirical work is needed to determine the extent of such cases.     

Mapping Communities: Geographic and Interdisciplinary Community-Based Learning and Research

This article discusses the ways in which the impacts of “geographic” community-based learning and research (CBLR) transcend the boundaries of the discipline of geography and also contribute to the practice and theory of civic engagement. I consider mapping and spatial thinking as a unique method for encouraging faculty, students, and community to engage in community partnerships. Drawing from several years of experience of teaching a CBLR course in an interdisciplinary setting, I highlight the role of geography in promoting community engagement. Geographic perspectives and methods can transform outreach or service models of community engagement into meaningful community partnerships that build and sustain a reciprocal relationship between university and community. I articulate three levels of geographic intervention that geographers need to attend to: theoretical, pedagogical, and institutional interventions on civic engagement.     

The Study of Human Action in the Physical Environment

Scientists have been formally studying the consequences of human action at least since Buffon and Humboldt in the 1700s. In 1864, Marsh published Man and Nature, a comprehensive synthesis documenting how people had been transforming Earth. This prominent catalogue of how people disturb Nature's harmonies was updated by Marsh in 1874 and by geographers in 1956 and 1990. Today the leading conceptions of human-environmental interaction are similar to Marsh's theme that people are the disturbers of Nature's harmonies. Effects of human action are considered using conceptions such as direct/indirect, intentional/accidental, and beneficial/detrimental. For a fresh approach, physical geographers could consider action more directly. Human action can be studied as any other process is. Systems concepts and energy flows used to evaluate natural forces can also be used to evaluate human forces. The centennial of the Association of American Geographers is an appropriate time to reflect on how physical geographers have been studying human-environmental interactions and to consider new approaches.     

Norwegian school geography and geographical education: A new research field?

Despite having a long-standing relationship, teacher education and geography in primary and secondary education in Norway has received little attention as a research field within academic geography until recently. The author asks: How has Norwegian school geography related to geography taught at universities? Where does research on school geography and geographical education stand today and where should it go from here? She examines the development of the role played by academic geographers in the field from the 1970s until the present. Some potential future venues for this emerging research field are suggested on the basis of an examination of what themes are current focal points for research and comparing them to what other countries consider essential in their teacher education.     

Hydrological Research and the Status of Physical Geography Journals: Increasing the Impact of Physical Geography in the Academy

Physical geographers are often confronted with the decision of whether to publish in geography or nongeography journals. The present study seeks to quantify the number of articles with a significant hydrology content published in geography versus hydrology journals by physical geographers from 1997 to 2002 using the ISI Web of Knowledge electronic database. Of 690 articles published in the 10 selected geography and hydrology journals during the period of study, over four‐fifths were published in hydrology journals. Based on our interpretation of the data, the comparatively smaller audience in geography and the risk of acquiring fewer citations compels physical geographers to publish in hydrology journals for increased visibility. A critical mass of physical geographers should consider publishing some of their work in physical geography journals to elevate the status of geography in the academy.     

A bridge over troubled waters? Systems theory and dialogue in geography

In physical geography, systems are seen as a unity of parts and relationships, whereas human geographers using a second-order sociological systems approach define systems in terms of the difference between system and environment. Starting from this, dialogue between physical and human geographers using terms derived from systems theory is mostly in vain. This article explores some of the consequences that follow for dialogue in geography: the differences in defining systems, in the understanding of processes, the problem of system borders, the inconsistent understanding of the 'environment' itself as well as the different epistemology that comes with it (or leads to it). The article tries to bring systems theory back into geography with the decisive aim of enhancing the potentials for interaction between human and physical geographers and, therefore, to explore the possibility of connecting the social with the physical world – deviating from systems theory.     

Teaching Social Justice: Reviving Geography's Neglected Tradition

Abstract

American students are encouraged to become globally competitive. I argue that in a world plagued by social inequality and environmental mismanagement, students should become globally cooperative. But this position is not new. Nineteenth century geographers such as Peter Kropotkin argued that geographic education should promote cooperation and tolerance of others. This article explores why geographers cast aside this progressive vision for geographic education. It hypothesizes that geography's pursuit of academic and scientific legitimacy prompted it to spurn “value-laden” methods. The article concludes by suggesting that geographers return to their social justice roots by adopting constructivist pedagogical methods of Paulo Freire.     

国外人文地理学男性气质研究回顾与启示

国外关于男性气质(Masculinity)的研究由来已久,地理学关于男性气质的探讨最早出现于女性主义的研究中,地理学者通过对其他学科相关理论的引用以及女性主义研究方法的借鉴,采用文本分析、个案研究等方法,对男性气质,特别是支配性男性气质(Hegemonic Masculinity)、乡村与城市男性气质等内容进行了深入的分析与探讨,并将男性气质的理论发展到了城市地理学、经济地理学、人口地理学、后殖民主义地理学等分支学科中。地理学者采用建构理论,综合社会、文化、性别和女性主义地理等多元视角,不仅分析了男性身份政治的形成过程,而且探索了不同男性身份政治形成的空间与环境,并尝试建构男性气质地理学。本文试图通过对国外人文地理学关于男性气质研究的回顾和梳理,为国内人文地理学中男性气质的研究提供指导与借鉴。     

SECOND-ORDER ANALYSIS OF BIVARIATE POINT PATTERNS

Second-order methods of point pattern analysis have only recently received attention from geographers. This paper demonstrates the use of these methods in a spatial analysis of two interrelated categories of objects in a finite region. Two contrasting methods of analyzing the spatial structure of bivariate point data provide insight into the potential of second-order methods. The first is the conventional “within” group analysis that compares a spatial pattern of points to a Poisson random pattern. The second, a “between” groups analysis, allows a distribution-free investigation of locational interdependencies between two categories of points. The map pattern of a sample of commercial investments in Cincinnati illustrates the utility of this approach.     

Migrating to learn and learning to migrate: a study of the experiences and intentions of international student migrants

"The research reported here evaluates whether students come to the UK mainly for educational reasons, and therefore perceive their stay as temporary, or whether emigration for study is being used as part of a conscious strategy by people intending to become future labour migrants.... The simplest interpretation of the results appears to be that migration, experienced as a result of international moves for study purposes, does not influence planning of further migration moves. But the research also indicates that migration for education is closely tied to other types of population redistribution and should be treated by population geographers as an integral part of international migration systems." Data were collected by questionnaire survey from 349 engineering students at Hong Kong universities and 82 Hong Kong students studying engineering in the UK.     

CHAOS THEORY IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Throughout the natural sciences the theory of chaos is gaining prominence as a means of explaining the behavior of systems. The word chaos is used as an antilogy of itself. Non-linear deterministic systems may produce unpredictable states, but the number of states is not illimitable. The states are restricted to definable regions in a state space of calculable dimensions. This theory is already having an impact in the environmental sciences, especially in meteorology. Its potential application in physical geography is real, and geographers must address its implications. Difficulties will be encountered, however, in acquiring enough data points at the spatial and temporal scales of interest in physical geography. [Key words: attractors, chaos, physical geography, systems.]     

Green infrastructure,green space,and sustainable urbanism: geography’s important role

ABSTRACT

This paper is a broad review of green infrastructure theory and practice relative to urban sustainability and the space for geographers in these discussions. We use examples from various urban sustainability plans to highlight ways in which green infrastructure is being conceptualized and implemented. We explore how geography contributes research on green infrastructure as well as the emerging practices as seen within sustainability plans. We identify four areas in which geographers can influence both green infrastructure theory and practice: 1) scale; 2) mapping distribution; 3) sensitivity to place and locale; and 4) equity and access. We conclude that in these areas geographers have tremendous opportunity contribute more deliberately to sustainable urbanism.     

Demography,destiny and population policies

This article considers the aftermath of the 1994 Cairo Conference on Population and Development and the later Laxon, Sweden meeting of about 40 academic geographers, who addressed the implications of the Plan of Action for national policy. A recent International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP) member synthesized conference impact on member nations. Martens from IUSSP offered the critique that the 381 recommendations were philosophically incoherent and poorly integrated and did not distinguish between government as a "doer of things" from government as "organizer and guarantor of a legal-institutional framework for allowing individuals and voluntary groups to seek improvements." This article discusses the apparent gulf between the views of population researchers and that of policy makers. It is reasoned that population policies do matter. The Club of Rome world model confirmed rapid population growth during 1972-90. Population policies in the past emphasized a societal perspective rather than an individual one. Policies impact on individual decision making. Most population geographers emphasize four features of social change. 1) Policy must address suitable measures for easing social, economic, and political tensions that arise in the temporary experience of high population growth. 2) More sensitive models of demographic behavior need to be developed, in order to account for the highly uneven patterns of fertility and mortality. Policy should not focus exclusively on family planning and should take into account the cultural and socioeconomic context. 3) Migration pressures from poor to rich countries have increased. Policy should address international migration. 4) People adapt quickly to new policy measures and apply policies effectively in their own life. Policies fail when the top-down approach does not include adequate research into values and behavior of the persons most affected by policy. These four points were discussed throughout this issue of "Applied Geography."     

THE NONPARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND MULTIPLE COMPARISONS PROCEDURES IN GEOGRAPHY*

Geographers employing the parametric F statistic in analyses of variance should consider that it can be highly sensitive to departures from normality. The Friedman and Kruskal-Wallis tests offer geographers nonparametric alternatives to the analysis of variance, for k dependent and independent samples respectively. Associated with the tests are little known methods for examining ordered alternatives and making multiple comparisons between samples, thereby permitting in-depth analysis of sample data. Both tests and these latter procedures are illustrated by examples drawn from population and urban retailing geography.     

Changing home, changing school: towards a research agenda on child migration

Summary The purpose of this contribution is to draw attention to a particular sub-group of the population whose migration behaviour has been largely neglected by population geographers but whose activities are of sufficient extent and consequence to require closer investigation. The paper outlines some evidence of the magnitude and geography of internal and international child migration in Britain in the 1990s and argues that research might usefully focus on the relationship between child migration and the school system, and the implications of this interdependence for public policy.     

去中心化和（逆）全球化背景下中国人文地理学的批判性理论探索与方法创新

文章以去中心化和（逆）全球化为背景评估中国的人文地理学研究现状与未来去向。笔者认为近年贸易保护主义和中美争端的不断升级会减缓但不会扭转知识全球化的长期趋势。中国人文地理学者不应该对进入世界舞台失去信心,而应该勇敢正视当前理论和研究创新的重要机遇和挑战。文章通过对比中国人文地理学科与西方同行的研究,发现两者有不少共同的历史和传统,包括研究命题、研究框架和解释方式。比较而言,中国人文地理学更加规范统一、富有组织和系统性,并积极支持国家发展议程;而西方人文地理学强调个人自由、多样性、天马行空（“Blue-sky enquiry”）以及独立于政府的批判性视角。文章指出三种不同的价值观作为供中国人文地理学者进行理论批判的重要视角。其他可能的理论探索方式包括将问题置于不同的时间和空间,使用不同的数据和方法进行多重验证,从基本假设出发来进行理论解构,批判性地辨析因果关系,以及在不同的尺度下重新检视研究问题等。中国人文地理应通过更好地理解三种不同的地理知识,建立有利于激励研究创新的评估体系,探索国际研究和跨学科研究的前沿领域,促进比较研究,以及融合利用不同风格的研究方法等策略来促进研究创新。文章结尾提出三种可能的（逆）全球化情景供中国人文地理学者思考如何迈向充满新挑战和新机遇的未来。