The fifth edition of the Atlas of Finland —thematic and methodological guidelines

Finland has a most extraordinary experience in the field of thematic and expecially atlas cartography. The traditions of national atlases go almost 100 years back through five extensive editions (1899, 1910, 1920, 1960 and the fifth 1977–1991). Thematically these atlases have acted as thruthful mirrors of the rather dramatic changes Finland has lived through both from the point of environment (including political boundaries), economy, settlement and cultural features. Methodologically the series of Finnish atlases show many interesting aspects of development, in many respects important new approaches have been introduced and also the fifth edition has in international reviews been described as “innovative”. Finally one can stress the purposeful geographical emphasis in the content of these atlases; they are no mechanistic interpretations of e.g. statistical data. The presently-day work in the field of national atlases faces many new demands. Automation has enhanced the cartographic processing of data, there is a much extended information base concerning all the aspects of the modern societies which must be taken into account and there is also a number of new outlets for the ready product (printed and numerical). The greater scope and diversity must not, however, restrict the scientific unbiased editorial work of analyzing and synthetizing the data for cartographic expression; a clearcut geographical philosophy must be the guideline. In the future the thematic and atlas cartography must also be dealt increasingly in problem-oriented and international frames.     

Programme-objective approach and mathematical models in research of development perspectives for Siberia

Economic geography has been enriched by modern scientific methods based on the ideas of systems analysis, optimisation, and economic-mathematical simulation. A system of models proposed by the Institute of Economics and Organisation of Industrial Production (IEOIP) of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences has as its methodological basis the programme-objective approach. It is national economic criteria that are used for selection of optimum alternatives of interregional proportions, development of each region being appraised according to its contribution to development of national production. For each region, in accordance with the place occupied by it in the territorial division of labour, complex programmes are drawn up, situational analysis being used widely with different probabilities of particular events being taken into account. The system of models of the IEOIP reflects interactions of two hierarchic structures of the economy (production and territory), includes five subsystems (blocks), and covers three main echelons of national economic planning. Two blocks of spatial models are intended for optimisation of schemes of locating productive forces of the nation, particular regions, and parts thereof: territorial-production complexes (TPC), zones of complete assimilation and industrial centres. The optimisation problems of national economy spatial structure, of production and spatial structure of the economy of particular regions are solved in co-operation with national economic models, models of separate sectors and multi-sectoral complexes. The main tool for optimising spatial structure of the national economy and regions are various versions of the intersectoral interregional model and a group of models for optimising creation of TPCs. With the help of these models a series of practical problems has been solved at the IEOIP, the findings of which are a basis for some propositions relating to development of productive forces of the nation, of Siberia as a whole, of particular regions in 1975, 1990, and 2000.     

3D modelling strategy for weather radar data analysis

Weather radar data, which have obvious spatial characteristics, represent an important and essential data source for weather identification and prediction, and the multi-dimensional visualization and analysis of such data in a three-dimensional (3D) environment are important strategies for meteorological assessments of potentially disastrous weather. The previous studies have generally used regular 3D raster grids as a basic structure to represent radar data and reconstruct convective clouds. However, conducting weather radar data analyses based on regular 3D raster grids is time-consuming and inefficient, because such analyses involve considerable amounts of tedious data interpolation, and they cannot be used to address real-time situations or provide rapid-response solutions. Therefore, a new 3D modelling strategy that can be used to efficiently represent and analyse radar data is proposed in this article. According to the mode by which the radar data are obtained, the proposed 3D modelling strategy organizes the radar data using logical objects entitled radar-point, radar-line, radar-sector, and radar-cluster objects. In these logical objects, the radar point is the basic object that carries the real radar data unit detected from the radar scan, and the radar-line, radar-sector, and radar-cluster objects organize the radar-point collection in different spatial levels that are consistent with the intrinsic spatial structure of the radar scan. Radar points can be regarded as spatial points, and their spatial structure can support logical objects; thus, the radar points can be flexibly connected to construct continuous surface data with quads and volume data with hexahedron cells without additional tedious data interpolation. This model can be used to conduct corresponding operations, such as extracting an isosurface with the marching cube method and a radar profile with a designed sectioning algorithm to represent the outer and inner structure of a convective cloud. Finally, a case study is provided to verify that the proposed 3D modelling strategy has a better performance in radar data analysis and can intuitively and effectively represent the 3D structure of convective clouds.     

层状地质体的三维模拟与可视化

文中探讨了层状地质体的三维模拟与可视化方法和技术。地质数据通常是有限的、空间上分布不均匀的点数据 ,需要大量使用插值技术来形成合理的模型。简单层状实体可在二维插值的基础上 ,按照这些面的空间位置叠加 ,形成三维体模型。复杂的层状体包括沉积相以及一些物性参数的空间变化 ,断层等形成的不连续以及复杂的褶皱等。这些实体的模拟与可视化 ,需要进行三维插值 ,并根据不同现象的特点选择合适的方法。合理的专家知识或地质解释的交互加入 ,是形成合理的三维模型的关键。     

Environmental and geologic application of solid-state methane sensors

The analysis of methane concentration in natural systems, such as soil, water and atmosphere, is becoming an important and delicate task for environmental research. (1)The characterization of the spatial and temporal variability of these emissions is an important and urgent target for greenhouse-gas and global change studies. In this respect a series of technical specifications are demanded by the scientific community, including sensor portability, low detection limit and the need of analyzing small volumes of gas. Solid-state gas sensors are increasingly used for environmental measurements. A metal oxide semiconductor (e.g., SnO₂, ZnO₂,) is used to fabricate chemical sensors for several gases, in particular methane. The potential of this technique is based on the low conductivity of the material in clean air, which increases with the methane gas concentration in the air. Sensitivity, selectivity, power consumption, long-term stability, and reaction time are all linked together. They all depend on the physico-chemical and geometrical structure of the sensitive layer. This means that improving one parameter has an influence on the others. Therefore, it is necessary to make compromises and select the combination of performances that best meet the application requirements.     

因子分析中变量和样品空间的统一

以空间结构分析为基础，提出了一个统一的变量和样品空间，由此得到因子空间，依据因子空间中变量和样品的相关性，很容易确定样品点群的成因，还讨论了因子分析中变量坐标和样品坐标的概念，指出因子得分不是样品的坐标，因而把因子得分图看作为因子空间坐标图是不合适的。     

基于多层DEM与QTPV的混合数据模型及其在地质建模中的应用

提出一种基于多层DEM与似三棱柱体元（QTPV）的混合三维数据模型。模型包含顶点、线段（棱边、三角形边）、三角形、侧面四边形、似三棱柱体元和DEM 6个基本元素,同时包含点对象、线对象、面对象、体对象、复杂对象、空间对象等6个对象。设计了6个基本元素和2种地质对象的数据结构和它们之间的拓扑关系。研究了基于原始采样点和基于内插点的两种建模方法。以模拟数据和地质钻探数据对开发的原型系统进行验证。研究表明,基于多层DEM与似三棱柱体元的混合三维数据模型具有同时表达空间对象的表面和内部结构的能力,适合地质勘探领域的三维建模。     

历史-因果论大地构造学刍议

随着大地构造学的不断发展,出现过的理论很多.它们此起彼落.更替频繁.究其原因.要从高层次来分析. 地质学史上.关于地质学的研究目的,一向存在两种不同的看法.一种认为主要在于对地球历史的重建.并把研究重点放在追索地质事件的时间序列上,可称为历史论地质学.另一种则认为主要在于对地球变革的理解.并把重点放在探究支配地球变化的一般规律.可称因果论地质学.作为地质学中涉及地球科学许多根本性问题的大地构造学,这种分岐自然尤为突出.并形成了历史论大地构造学和因果论大地构造学. 在历史论大地构造学的理论中.最流行的为地槽地台理论.它主要研究地壳演化的阶段划分.构造单元的出现顺序和历史生因关系.在因果论大地构造学的理论中.著名的有地质力学和板块理论,前者主要探究诸种构造的力学性质和成因.以及构造体系的划分.后者则主要探索岩石圈块体的移动和互相间的力学关系.以及移动的力源机制.由于历史论和因果论各有其主要的研究对象和研究方法,因而各有其自己方面的优点和长处,而且两方面都是解决地球构造问题所需要的.都具有重大的意义和作用。缺一不可.另一方面,由于各自的主要研究目的和研究对象的要求.来不及重视另一方面的优点和长处.遂致两方面都难以适应全面地解决地球构造多方面问题的要求.如果把它们两方的研究目的兼顾,统一研究;并把两方研究方法和长处结合起来,融为一体,就会互相补益、相辅相成,能够比较全面地研究地球构造及其所成矿产的时间空间分布规律.更有成效地指导找矿。作者设想的这样一门综合性大地构造学.叫做“历史-因果论大地构造学”. 体现把历史论同因果论大地构造学两方研究对象结合起来.融为一体的研究思路和途径.主要是建立一个把岩石圈演化与运动统一研究的综合性的构造概念.叫做“壳体”.壳体的定义是这样:“地球硬壳(相当于岩石圈)在其形成和发展过程中.可能先后不一地出现于不同地域,在诞生、成长、运动、变化和发展等方面分异进行;既在演化又在运动(包括移动)的时空综合的全球性基本构造单元。”它们在形式一表现为岩石圈的既不断发展又变化位置的块体.各有其自身的诞生时代,成长方式和发展历程,演化阶段和成熟度.物质组成及地壳性质.垂向及平向结构.构造单元组成,面积、厚度、形状及其变化,整体及体内运动,地球物理、地球化学、生物演化、成矿演化及其时空规律等方面的特点。不同壳体可由不同数目(或)不同性质类别的大地构造体制的构造区组成. 历史因果论大地构造学的研究指导思想和研究方法,主要包括下列几点:(1)发展观点同联系观点结合:(2)时间观念同三维空间观念结合;(3)水平运动同垂直运动并重:(4)壳体的整体运动同体内运动并重;(5)构造层划分与构造系划分结合;(6)洋壳同陆壳兼顾;(7)远古与近代并重;(8)全球与地区兼顾;(9)岩石圈演化与运动并重.     

Visualization of geochemical data on maps at the Geological Survey of Finland

Software for presentation of geochemical data on maps has been integrated into a user-friendly package, ALKEMIA, at the Geological Survey of Finland (GSF). ALKEMIA contains procedures for generating dot maps, colour surface maps, shaded relief maps, and vector images, and for interpolating and smoothing irregularly gridded data. Combining dots and colour surfaces provides a means of visually integrating up to three variables on a map, revealing the spatial relationships between them. The methods employed are described in detail, particularly the moving weighted median, which has been widely used at the GSF for interpolating and smoothing geochemical and other numerical data. Several geochemical and oncological atlases and series of maps have been produced with these methods.     

Scaling the Baltic Sea environment

The Baltic Sea environment has since the early 1970s passed through several phases of spatial objectification in which the ostensibly well-defined semi-enclosed sea has been framed and reframed as a geographical object for intergovernmental environmental politics. Based on a historical analysis of this development, this article suggests that environmental politics critically depend on the delineation of relatively bounded spaces that identify and situate particular environmental concerns as spatial objects for politics. These spaces are not simply determined by ‘nature’ or some environmental-scientific logic, but should rather be seen as temporal outcomes of scale framing processes, processes that are accentuated by contemporary conceptions of the environment (or nature) in terms of multi-scalar ecosystems. This has implications for how an environmental concern is perceived and politically addressed.     

砂土颗粒形状量化及其对力学指标的影响分析

砂作为一种特殊的散体材料,其宏观物理力学性质,如密实度、剪切特性（临界状态角,剪胀角）、压缩性及颗粒破碎特征等均受到颗粒形状的影响,目前为止,对于砂粒土颗粒形状的量化工作,未到达成熟阶段。试验采用普通光学显微镜获取3种不同砂颗粒及一种相似材料（玻璃球）数字图像,利用ImageJ图形软件对其进行黑白二值化处理,获取颗粒形状轮廓边界;从3个层次定义颗粒形状参数,并利用java语言编制形状量化插件程序,计算砂粒各形状参数值,最后通过相对密度试验、直剪试验测试不同砂样的极限孔隙比、剪切强度指标。试验结果表明：整体轮廓系数、球形度、棱角度3项形状参数可作为不同砂粒形状鉴别和量化的关键参数,且与剪胀角、临界状态摩擦角均具有良好的相关性,试验提供了一种量化砂颗粒形状的有效方法,并可将得到的关键量化参数应用到宏观力学性质分析与数值模拟工作中     

Automated Sizing of Coarse-Grained Sediments: Image-Processing Procedures

This is the first in a pair of papers in which we present image-processing-based procedures for the measurement of fluvial gravels. The spatial and temporal resolution of surface grain-size characterization is constrained by the time-consuming and costly nature of traditional measurement techniques. Several groups have developed image-processing-based procedures, but none have demonstrated the transferability of these techniques between sites with different lithological, clast form and textural characteristics. Here we focus on image-processing procedures for identifying and measuring image objects (i.e. grains); the second paper examines the application of such procedures to the measurement of fluvially deposited gravels. Four image-segmentation procedures are developed, each having several internal parameters, giving a total of 416 permutations. These are executed on 39 images from three field sites at which the clasts have contrasting physical properties. The performance of each procedure is evaluated against a sample of manually digitized grains in the same images, by comparing three derived statistics. The results demonstrate that it is relatively straightforward to develop procedures that satisfactorily identify objects in any single image or a set of images with similar sedimentary characteristics. However, the optimal procedure is that which gives consistently good results across sites with dissimilar sedimentary characteristics. We show that neighborhood-based operations are the most powerful, and a morphological bottom-hat transform with a double threshold is optimal. It is demonstrated that its performance approaches that of the procedures giving the best results for individual sites. Overall, it out-performs previously published, or improvements to previously published, methods.     

基于级别特征值的岩溶含水层水质模糊综合评价修正

为改进传统水质模糊综合评价中存在评价指标不能全面反映水质状况、评价结果不清晰,评价等级区分度不明显等缺陷,文章以位于六枝特区威宁-郎岱褶皱群的第一层岩溶含水层水质为例,根据岩溶区水质评价特点和研究区含水层超标因子特征,建立涵盖物理、化学和微生物等因子的评价指标体系,利用级别特征值对传统模糊综合评价结果进行了适当修正,并与综合污染指数法、传统模糊评价综合法的评价精度进行定量化比较。研究结果表明:六枝特区的研究区探采点水质综合评价等级都达到Ⅲ类生活饮用水卫生标准,但仍有71%的探采点存在氨氮（NH4+）、氟化物(F-)、高锰酸盐指数(CODMn)、溶解性总固体（TDS）和大肠杆菌等指标超标,且超标因子浓度呈点状扩散分布于三叠系中下统地层;另外,传统模糊综合评价中有57.1%的水质达到Ⅰ类标准,与多个探采点存在因子超标的情况不符,而通过级别特征值修正的模糊综合评价结果中分别有57.1%和28.6%的探采点水质为Ⅱ类或Ⅲ类标准,与着重突出最大超标因子权重的综合指数法类别标准差低0.011。因此,基于级别特征值的模糊综合评价能有效的反映水质整体水平,探采点水样超标因子浓度和同类水质的区分度,评价结果合理、可信。      

Sustainable transport indicators: Definition and integration

In this paper, a different interpretation of sustainable transportation, is introduced, in which sustainability with respect to transportation sector for the selected countries is evaluated. This interpretation characterizes “sustainable development” through “harmonic development”. It means sustainable development with special focus on transportation can be measured by the degree of conformity between environment, economy, and social aspects on one hand, and transportation on the other hand. The best indicator to perform such a measurement is elasticity. The database used for the study encompasses a series of national indicators for each country Seventy nine countries were initially selected for detailed analysis for the period of 1980–1995. The data have been extracted from centralized information sources of international agencies. The key dimensions of sustainable development i.e. social, environmental, and economic characteristics are used. Firstly, a set of sustainable transportation indicators is introduced. These indicators, which in fact are elasticities, show the relative change of non-transportation variables with respect to transportation ones. Second composite indices of three non-transportation groups with respect to four transportation modes are calculated. The composite indices are then aggregated by the Concordance Analysis Technique to achieve comprehensive transportation sustainability indices of countries, and according to these values, the countries are compared, ranked, and classified. Mathematical and statistical analyses of the database support the study quantitatively. The results for the selected indicators and countries show that from sustainable transportation point of view and based on the above-mentioned interpretation of sustainable development, United States is in the ranked first, and Sierra Leon is last among the subset of 79 countries with non-missing data. The results of the study depict an overall scheme for comparative assessment of transportation sustainability of the countries.     

Development of an implicit material point method for geotechnical applications

An implicit material point method (MPM), a variant of the finite element method (FEM), is presented in this paper. The key feature of MPM is that the spatial discretisation uses a set of material points, which are allowed to move freely through the background mesh. All history-dependent variables are tracked on the material points and these material points are used as integration points similar to the Gaussian points. A mapping and re-mapping algorithm is employed, to allow the state variables and other information to be mapped back and forth between the material points and background mesh nodes during an analysis. In contrast to an explicit time integration scheme utilised by most researchers, an implicit time integration scheme has been utilised here. The advantages of such an approach are twofold: firstly, it addresses the limitation of the time step size inherent in explicit integration schemes, thereby potentially saving significant computational costs for certain types of problems; secondly, it enables an improved algorithm accuracy, which is important for some constitutive behaviours, such as elasto-plasticity. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a unified MPM framework, in which both quasi-static and dynamic analyses can be solved, and to demonstrate the model behaviour. The implementation closely follows standard FEM approaches, where possible, to allow easy conversion of other FEM codes. Newton’s method is used to solve the equation of motion for both cases, while the formation of the mass matrix and the required updating of the kinematic variables are unique to the dynamic analysis. Comparisons with an Updated Lagrangian FEM and an explicit MPM code are made with respect to the algorithmic accuracy and time step size in a couple of representative examples, which helps to illustrate the relative performance and advantages of the implicit MPM. A geotechnical application is then considered, illustrating the capabilities of the proposed method when applied in the geotechnical field.     

伊通火山群地质遗迹的科考与旅游价值

伊通火山群是以新生代火山地质环境为主形成的自然形态、自然环境系统,在火山地质构造、成因机制、典型岩石露头、地形地貌等方面有其自己的特色。因特殊的火山成因机制被火山学者命名为"伊通型"火山,所在区域列为国家级自然保护区和省级地质公园。伊通火山群地质遗迹具有火山地质科学研究的典型性和科学性、可供游人欣赏和休憩的自然性与观赏性。     

Doing space relationally: Exploring the meaningful geographies of local government in Wales

Recent years have seen significant advancements in the theorising of relational space through conceptual frameworks which recognise the polymorphic organisation of sociospatial relations (e.g. Territory, Place, Scale and Network). Less understood, however, are the methodological challenges inherent in ‘thinking space relationally’. In particular, how can such conceptual vocabularies be sustained through the contingent practices of doing research? In this article, we address these concerns empirically through an analysis of the sociospatial responsibilities of local government actors across Wales, as new modes of spatial planning require them to think and act across administrative boundaries and policy areas. We introduce the notion of ‘patch’ as a means for eliciting conceptually open and grounded accounts of relational space as situated within personal/professional interests, cultures and ideologies. We identify different ways in which patch is relationally located, and how understandings of its boundaries and coherences relate to public policy remits. Yet while invoking different kinds of material and imagined spatiality, patch remains largely defined by the responsibilities and resources tied to local government boundaries. Institutional configurations continue to inform the way different spaces are discursively organised and practised. We conclude by reflecting on the need for accounts of relational space to be open to its everyday material groundings in relations of fixity and flow. Gesturing towards recent studies which display complementary concerns, we consider where attentiveness to patch and other ‘meaningful’ spatial frames has the potential to develop geographical analyses in new directions.     

盐池县地质灾害遥感调查及空间分布特征分析

宁夏盐池县地处黄土高原区,地质灾害较为频繁。以SPOT6、RapidEye、无人机以及LandSat8 OLI等多源遥感数据为基础,通过研究遥感影像特征,建立地质灾害解译标志,共解译出滑坡125处、崩塌84处、泥石流19处、地面塌陷区3处。结合区域地理地质环境特征,总结了研究区地质灾害点的基本特征,并利用GIS技术对灾害点进行点密度分析,在此基础上划分了7个集中分布区,归纳了盐池县地质灾害点的空间分布特征及规律;同时,对研究区地层构造、植被、地形等因素与地质灾害点空间分布特征的相关性进行了讨论。研究结果表明:盐池县地质灾害点具有规模小,灾害轻;点密度整体南高北低,且南部聚集、北部分散;地层、植被、坡度、坡向等因素与地质灾害有着密切的联系。     

发展战略、体制机制与国土空间规划

我国土地研究领域知名学者,原中国土地勘测规划院(现中国国土勘测规划院)院长、党委书记,曾担任中国土地学会副理事长的黄小虎研究员,应邀于2020年11月21日在清华大学土地利用与住房政策研究中心主办的“后疫情时代:国土空间规划与城乡高质量发展”论坛上作主题报告。他在发言中指出:传统规划体系存在多类型规划矛盾冲突的问题,多规合一为解决这一问题指明了方向、奠定了基础。十八大以后,中央对经济社会的发展战略、路线方针等陆续做出重大调整,国家发展内涵发生转变,要求突出发展质量,强调环境保护、农业农村优先。在体制机制上明确由新组建的自然资源部负责建立空间规划体系,其他部门不再编制涉及空间布局的规划,“多规合一”得到实现。国土空间规划的核心内容是国土利用和土地利用的功能分区,这也是用途管制的依据。     

生物矿化研究现状和展望

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