城市地表覆盖组分及植被多样性与热环境关联性分析——以贵阳市为例

本文以贵阳市为研究对象,研究了地表覆盖组分及植被多样性对地表温度的影响。首先基于Landsat8 OLI多时相影像数据在GEE平台上实现了研究区域地表覆盖精细分类;然后结合不同季节8天合成的MODIS温度产品数据,利用时空统计分析、相关分析等方法分析了研究区不同地表覆盖类型地表温度时空分布特征,地表温度与不同地表覆盖组分、地表覆盖多样性和植被覆盖多样性的相关性。结果表明：贵阳市建成区主要分布有常绿阔叶林、常绿针叶林等植被,常绿阔叶林在不同季节对地表温度的降温效应明显,而不透水面对地表温度具有明显的增温效应,尤其以夏季最为显著;地表覆盖多样性与地表温度之间具有较强相关性,其中植被覆盖多样性较植被覆盖率对地表温度的影响更为显著,而不透水面的增加会明显降低植被多样性的影响。因此,要发挥城市绿地对城市温度和热岛效应的调节作用,建议可以适当增加常绿阔叶林的绿化面积,同时在空间上要提升植被多样性水平,能够较大程度改善城市热环境。     

基于MOD16产品的我国2001-2010年蒸散发时空格局变化分析

蒸散发的时空格局分析对理解气候变化与水资源之间的相互影响具有重要的作用。本文基于MODIS全球蒸散发产品(MOD16),分析了2001-2010年我国陆面蒸散发的时空格局变化,得出以下结论：(1)站点尺度和流域尺度的精度验证结果表明,MOD16产品对于我国森林、农田生态系统类型,以及辽河、海河、黄河和淮河流域的模拟精度较高;(2)2001-2010年,我国年均蒸散发为532±10 mm,年内蒸散值变化最大的是东北区,月均蒸散变异系数为0.87,而西北区变化幅度最小,变异系数为0.19;(3)2001-2010年,我国陆面蒸散发年际变化总的趋势不明显,占陆地面积11.2%区域的蒸散发呈显著减少趋势(p<0.05),主要分布在青藏高原中部,内蒙古中东部地区及新疆北部,只有2.3%的区域的蒸散发增加趋势显著,(p<0.05),主要分布在黄土高原地区、黄淮海平原及东北平原;(4)通过对比干旱指数变化趋势、植被指数变化趋势图可以看出,蒸散发显著减少的区域主要分布于干旱加剧的半干旱地区,而蒸散发显著增加的区域主要位于植被变好的地区。     

Evapotranspiration Estimation Based on MODIS Products and Surface Energy Balance Algorithms for Land （SEBAL） Model in Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China

In this study,the Surface Energy Balance Algorithms for Land(SEBAL) model and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) products from Terra satellite were combined with meteorological data to estimate evapotranspiration(ET) over the Sanjiang Plain,Northeast China.Land cover/land use was classified by using a recursive partitioning and regression tree with MODIS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) time series data,which were reconstructed based on the Savitzky-Golay filtering approach.The MODIS product Quality Assessment Science Data Sets(QA-SDS) was analyzed and all scenes with valid data covering more than 75% of the Sanjiang Plain were selected for the SEBAL modeling.This provided 12 overpasses during 184-day growing season from May 1st to October 31st,2006.Daily ET estimated by the SEBAL model was misestimaed at the range of-11.29% to 27.57% compared with that measured by Eddy Covariance system(10.52% on average).The validation results show that seasonal ET from the SEBAL model is comparable to that from ground observation within 8.86% of deviation.Our results reveal that the time series daily ET of different land cover/use increases from vegetation on-going until June or July and then decreases as vegetation senesced.Seasonal ET is lower in dry farmland(average(Ave):491 mm) and paddy field(Ave:522 mm) and increases in wetlands to more than 586 mm.As expected,higher seasonal ET values are observed for the Xingkai Lake in the southeastern part of the Sanjiang Plain(Ave:823 mm),broadleaf forest(Ave:666 mm) and mixed wood(Ave:622 mm) in the southern/western Sanjiang Plain.The ET estimation with SEBAL using MODIS products can provide decision support for operational water management issues.     

中国西北地区植被NDVI的时空变化及其影响因子分析

利用GIMMS/NDVI数据分析了中国西北地区1982-2006年植被NDVI时空变化特征及其影响因子。近25年来,中国西北地区年均植被NDVI增速为0.5%/10a,并存在明显的空间差异。天山、阿尔泰山、祁连山、青海的中东部等地区植被NDVI显著增加;青海南部地区、陕西和宁夏交界地区、甘肃部分地区,以及新疆部分地区的植被NDVI下降。从不同植被类型看:林地、草地和耕地的年均NDVI都在提高。研究表明:中国西北地区植被NDVI变化是各种自然和人为因素综合作用的结果。植被NDVI与气温、降水的年际变化整体上都呈弱的正相关。但与其年内变化则都呈显著的线性关系,当月均温量超过20℃时,植被NDVI呈下降趋势;当月降水量在0¹00mm期间,植被NDVI随降水线性增长,当月降水量超过100mm之后,不再有明显的增长趋势。农业生产水平提高和植被生态建设等人类活动对西北地区植被NDVI增加有重要影响。     

Using 137Cs tracing methods to estimate soil redistribution rates and to construct a sediment budget for a small agricultural catchment in the three gorges reservoir region, China

Soil erosion and associated off-site sedimentation are threatening the sustainable use of the Three Gorges Dam.To initiate management intervention to reduce sediment yields,there is an increasing need for reliable information on soil erosion in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region(TGRR).The purpose of this study is to use 137 Cs tracing methods to construct a sediment budget for a small agricultural catchment in the TGRR.Cores were taken from a pond and from paddy fields,for 137 Cs measurements.The results show that the average sedimentation rate in the pond since 1963 is 1.50 g cm-2 yr-1 and the corresponding amount of sediment deposited is 1,553 t.The surface erosion rate for the sloping cultivated lands and the sedimentation rate in the paddy fields were estimated to be 3,770 t km-2 yr-1 and 2,600 t km-2 yr-1,respectively.Based on the estimated erosion and deposition rates,and the area of each unit,the post 1970 sediment budget for the catchment has been constructed.A sediment delivery ratio of 0.5 has been estimated for the past 42 years.The data indicate that the sloping cultivated lands are the primary sediment source areas,and that the paddy fields are deposition zones.The typical land use pattern(with the upper parts characterized by sloping cultivated land and the lower parts by paddy fields) plays an important role in reducing sediment yield from agricultural catchments in the TGRR.A 137 Cs profile for the sediment deposited in a pond is shown to provide an effective means of estimating the land surface erosion rate in the upstream catchment.     

Spatio-temporal distribution of phytoplankton in the Danjiangkou Reservoir, a water source area for the Southto-North Water Diversion Project (Middle Route), China

One of the water source areas of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project is the Danjiangkou Reservoir (DJKR). To understand seasonal variation in phytoplankton composition, abundance and distribution in the DJKR area before water diversion, as well as to estimate potential risks of water quality after water diversion, we conducted an investigation on phytoplankton in the DJKR from August 2008 to May 2009. The investigation included 10 sampling sites, each with four depths of 0.5, 5, 10, and 20 m. In this study, 117 taxa belonging to 76 genera were identified, consisting of diatoms (39 taxa), green algae (47 taxa), blue-green algae (19 taxa), and others (12 taxa). Annual average phytoplankton abundance was 2.01 × 10⁶ ind./L, and the highest value was 14.72 × 10⁶ ind/L (at site 3 in August 2008). Phytoplankton abundance in front of the Danjiangkou Dam (DJKD) was higher than that of the Danjiang Reservoir Basin. Phytoplankton distribution showed a vertical declining trend from 0.5 m to 20 m at most sites in August 2008 (especially at sites of 1, 2, 4 and 10), but no distinct pattern in other sampling months. In December 2008 and March 2009, Stephanodiscus sp. was the most abundant species, amounting to 55.23% and 72.34%, respectively. We propose that high abundance of Stephanodiscus sp. may have contributed greatly to the frequent occurrence of Stephanodiscus sp. blooms in middle-low reaches of the Hanjiang River during the early spring of 2009. In comparison with previous studies conducted from 1992 to 2006, annual average phytoplankton density, green algae and blue-green algae species, as well as major nutrient concentrations increased, while phytoplankton diversity indices declined. This indicates a gradual decline in water quality. More research should be conducted and countermeasures taken to prevent further deterioration of water quality in the DJKR.     

Sensitivity of penman-monteith reference crop evapotranspiration in Tao’er River Basin of northeastern China

A non-dimensional relative sensitivity coefficient was employed to predict the responses of reference crop evapotranspiration （ET0） to perturbation of four climate variables in Tao＇er River Basin of the northeastern China. Mean monthly ET0 and yearly ET0 from 1961 to 2005 were estimated with the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith Equation. A 45-year historical dataset of average monthly maximum/minimum air temperature, mean air temperature, wind speed, sunshine hours and relative humidity from 15 meteorological stations was used in the analysis. Results show that： 1） Sensitivity coefficients of wind speed, air temperature and sunshine hours were positive except for those of air temperature of Arxan Meteorological Station, while those of relative humidity were all negative. Relative humidity was the most sensitive variable in general for the Tao＇er River Basin, followed by sunshine hours, wind speed and air temperature. 2） Similar to climate variable, monthly sensitivity coefficients exhibit large annual fluctuations. 3） Sensitivity coefficients for four climate variables all showed significant trends in seasonal/yearly series. Also, sensitivity coefficients of air temperature, sunshine hours and wind speed all showed significant trends in spring. 4） Among all sensitivity coefficients, the average yearly sensitivity coefficient of relative humidity was highest throughout the basin and showed largest spatial variability. Longitudinal distribution of sensitivity coefficients for air temperature, relative humidity and sunshine hours was also found, which was similar to the distribution of the three climate variables.     

尼泊尔土地覆被遥感制图及其空间格局分析

尼泊尔作为兴都库什-喜马拉雅区域的重要组成部分,是一个从平原到山地再到高原的典型过渡地带,具有多样且复杂的土地覆被类型。开展尼泊尔国家尺度的土地覆被研究,对该国的国土资源管理、生态环境保护具有重要的科学和实践意义,同时也能为中国倡导的“一带一路”国际区域经济合作战略提供基础数据保障。本文选用Landsat TM影像为数据源,基于面向对象与决策树相结合的土地覆被遥感制图方法,生产了尼泊尔全境2010年土地覆被产品（NepalCover-2010）,该产品包括8个一级类和32个二级类。同时,本文基于Google Earth高分辨率影像获取验证样本开展了NepalCover-2010产品的精度验证工作,并进一步分析了该国土地覆被类型的数量结构特征和空间格局特征与地形、气象要素间的关系。研究结果表明：① NepalCover-2010产品一级类总体分类精度达94.83%,Kappa系数为0.94;二级类的总体分类精度达87.17%,Kappa系数为0.85,能够准确地反映尼泊尔土地覆被类型的空间分布格局,是同类土地覆被产品中精度最好的。② 林地是尼泊尔最主要的土地覆被类型,其面积约占尼泊尔国土面积的41%。耕地次之,其面积占比约为25%,其中水田和旱地的面积分布比例约为2:3。③ 地形和气象要素对尼泊尔的土地覆被类型空间分布格局具有显著影响,自南向北随着地势的抬升,各土地覆被类型出现顺序表现出水田、常绿阔叶林、旱地、常绿阔叶灌木林、常绿针叶林、草原、稀疏植被和冰川/永久积雪的垂直地带性特征。     

多分辨率遥感土地覆被数据质量综合评价——以湖南省桃源县为例

评价土地覆被数据质量是正确、合理使用数据的前提和保障,有助于遥感制图方法的改进。本文以1：10万土地利用数据为参考数据,选取2010年RapidEye_5 m、FROM_GLC（30 m）、MODIS_V005（500 m）,以及2009年GlobCover 2009（300 m）土地覆被数据,以湖南省桃源县为例对4种不同分辨率的遥感土地覆被数据质量,引入窗口的分类类别统计方法,进行了综合评价,并分析了其误差和空间分布。结果表明：（1）RapidEye_5 m数据总体精度最高,MODIS_V005和FROM_GLC次之,GlobCover 2009数据相对最低。高分辨率土地覆被数据对于居民地、交通用地、水体等精细地物分类较好,具有一定优越性,各数据在一级类上的面积相关性和一致性总体高于二级类;（2）各数据在建筑用地和其他未利用地类型上的生产者精度均较低,FROM_GLC和MODIS_V005数据,在灌木草地上的空间一致性较差,4种数据在以耕地为主的平坦地区空间一致性较好,混淆主要发生在灌木草地、乔木林地和耕地之间;（3）随着土地覆被数据分辨率的提高,分出较多地物类型数的面积比例也随之增加,较高分辨率的RapidEye_5 m和FROM_GLC分出的类别数集中在7-16种较高水平上,低分辨率数据集中在1-5种较低水平上,在丘陵山区差异显著,而高分辨率数据对地物区分更好,集中于11-16种地物。     

白银市气温年代际变化及均生函数预测模型的应用

讨论了白银市气温突变及年代际变化特征,并利用均生函数预测模型对白银市气温进行预测试验.在1997～2003年预测试验中,结果表明,均生函数预测模型可以较好地拟合气温的气候变化趋势,对季、年气温有较好的预测能力.     

Wavelet analysis and nonparametric test for climate change in Tarim River Basin of Xinjiang during 1959–2006

Using wavelet analysis, regression analysis and the Mann-Kendall test, this paper analyzed time-series (1959–2006) weather data from 23 meteorological stations in an attempt to characterize the climate change in the Tarim River Basin of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. Major findings are as follows: 1) In the 48-year study period, average annual temperature, annual precipitation and average annual relative humidity all presented nonlinear trends. 2) At the 16-year time scale, all three climate indices unanimously showed a rather flat before 1964 and a detectable pickup thereafter. At the 8-year time scale, an S-shaped nonlinear and uprising trend was revealed with slight fluctuations in the entire process for all three indices. Incidentally, they all showed similar pattern of a slight increase before 1980 and a noticeable up-swing afterwards. The 4-year time scale provided a highly fluctuating pattern of periodical oscillations and spiral increases. 3) Average annual relative humidity presented a negative correlation with average annual temperature and a positive correlation with annual precipitation at each time scale, which revealed a close dynamic relationship among them at the confidence level of 0.001. 4) The Mann-Kendall test at the 0.05 confidence level demonstrated that the climate warming trend, as represented by the rising average annual temperature, was remarkable, but the climate wetting trend, as indicated by the rising annual precipitation and average annual relative humidity, was not obvious.     

长沙市热岛效应时空特征变化研究

本文基于1991-2015年长沙市9景Landsat TM/ETM影像,采用单窗算法反演了长沙市建成区的地表温度,提取了土地利用/覆盖类型,并结合相关资料对长沙市热岛效应时空变化特征以及城市热环境与城市土地利用/覆盖变化之间的关系进行了分析。结果表明长沙市热岛范围随着建成区范围的扩大不断增大,并且热岛的时空演变与建成区扩大的趋势一致：1991-1996年,长沙市热岛向东发展迅速,截至1996年东部热岛面积增加达53.54 km² ;1996-2003年,受城市建成区扩展影响,热岛向西部延伸,增加面积达39.88 km²;2003-2007年,建成区热岛向西部、南部加速发展,热岛增加总面积达33.55 km²;2007年后,长沙市建成区与热岛范围开始向东、西、南、北4个方向全面扩展。此外,建成区土地利用/覆盖情况发生了很大的变化,大量绿地转变为建设用地和耕地,极大地影响了地表温度的空间分布,各土地类型之间的温度差异显著缩小,水体良好的吸热性能明显地体现出来,建筑用地和裸地则对地表温度的贡献显著增大。     

The influence of seasonal snow on soil thermal and water dynamics under different vegetation covers in a permafrost region

Seasonal snow is one of the most important influences on the development and distribution of permafrost and the hydrothermal regime in surface soil. Alpine meadow, which constitutes the main land type in permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, was selected to study the influence of seasonal snow on the temperature and moisture in active soil layers under different vegetation coverage. Monitoring sites for soil moisture and temperature were constructed to observe the hydrothermal processes in active soil layers under different vegetation cover with seasonal snow cover variation for three years from 2010 to 2012. Differences in soil temperature and moisture in areas of diverse vegetation coverage with varying levels of snow cover were analyzed using active soil layer water and temperature indices. The results indicated that snow cover greatly influenced the hydrothermal dynamics of the active soil layer in alpine meadows. In the snow manipulation experiment with a snow depth greater than 15 cm, the snow cover postponed both the freeze-fall and thawrise onset times of soil temperature and moisture in alpine LC （lower vegetation coverage） meadows and of soil moisture in alpine HC （higher vegetation coverage） meadows; however, the opposite response occurred for soil temperatures of alpine HC meadows,where the entire melting period was extended by advancing the thaw-rise and delaying the freeze-fall onset time of the soil temperature. Snow cover resulted in a decreased amplitude and rate of variation in soil temperature, for both alpine HC meadows and alpine LC meadows, whereas the distinct influence of snow cover on the amplitude and rate of soil moisture variation occurred at different soil layers with different vegetation coverages. Snow cover increased the soil moisture of alpine grasslands during thawing periods. The results confirmed that the annual hydrothermal dynamics of active layers in permafrost were subject to the synergistic actions of both snow cover and vegetation coverage.     

鄱阳湖地区土地覆盖空间分布格局与景观特征分析

 鄱阳湖是我国第一大淡水湖,具有洪水调蓄、水源涵养等重要生态服务功能。掌握鄱阳湖地区土地覆盖的空间分布格局和规律,对于评价其环境保护和生态服务功能具有重要作用。本文利用环境卫星影像、2005年鄱阳湖地区土地覆盖数据,经遥感解译分析获取了鄱阳湖地区2010年土地覆盖现状数据及其空间分布格局图。研究表明:(1)采用2010年的环境星影像结合2005年土地覆盖数据,人工目视解译得到的2010年土地覆盖数据的精度为80.4%。(2)景观生态学、GIS及统计学的思想和方法可以为土地覆盖空间特征的定量分析提供技术支持。文中采用的斑块面积指数、斑块形状指数、不同土地覆盖类型的邻接指数,从不同角度反映了鄱阳湖地区土地覆盖的空间分布格局及景观特征。(3)景观指数能定量说明土地覆盖景观的形状、大小、数量和空间组合,能反映景观的生态环境特点、人类活动及社会经济状况。面积特征指数显示研究区农村聚落的离散度及破碎度最高;斑块形状指数反映出研究区水体形状趋于规则化,其受到人类的"围湖造田,围湖造地"及防洪工程建设的干扰。(4)不同土地覆盖类型的邻接指数能定量说明相邻类型在物质交换、结构与功能的相互影响及土地资源形成机制、演替过程等。水田与常绿阔叶林的邻接关系反映了人类"毁林开荒"活动对林地与水田演替关系的影响;水田与农村聚落的邻接关系,表明研究区耕地保护的重点是城镇及农村周边耕地的保护;城镇建设用地的邻接关系表明了人类生活所需的生活条件,为"移民建镇"工程提供了科学依据。分析认为:鄱阳湖地区是以耕地为主的农业区,并且有丰富的水资源及森林资源,但今后要重视农村土地的集约化利用、水资源保护、耕地资源保护和自然资源的合理开发利用。     

Effect of Temporal Resolution of NDVI on Potential Evapotranspiration Estimation and Hydrological Model Performance

Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data, obtained from remote sensing information, are essential in the Shuttleworth-Wallace (S-W) model for estimation of evapotranspiration. In order to study the effect of temporal resolution of NDVI on potential evapotranspiration (PET) estimation and hydrological model performance, monthly and 10-day NDVI data set were used to estimate potential evapotranspiration from January 1985 to December 1987 in Huangnizhuang catchment, Anhui Province, China. The differences of the two calculation results were analyzed and used to drive the block-wise use of the TOPMODEL with the Muskingum-Cunge routing (BTOPMC) model to test the effect on model performance. The results show that both annual and monthly PETs estimated by 10-day NDVI are lower than those estimated by monthly NDVI. Annual PET from the vegetation root zone (PETr) lowers 9.77%-13.64% and monthly PETr lowers 3.28%-17.44% in the whole basin. PET from the vegetation interception (PETi) shows the same trend as PETr. In addition, temporal resolution of NDVI has more effect on PETr in summer and on PETi in winter. The correlation between PETr as estimated by 10-day NDVI and pan measurement (R2= 0.835) is better than that between monthly NDVI and pan measurement (R2 = 0.775). The two potential evapotranspiration estimates were used to drive the BTOPMC model and calibrate parameters, and model performance was found to be similar. In summary, the effect of temporal resolution of NDVI on potential evapotranspiration estimation is significant, but trivial on hydrological model performance.     

基于长时间序列MODIS数据的鄱阳湖湖面面积变化分析

湖泊是气候、水和生物地球化学循环的关键组分,遥感观测有助于获得湖泊面积变化及对环境的响应信息。本文基于长时间序列遥感观测提出了一种利用像元水淹没/陆地出露比例的湖面变化分析算法,并应用于鄱阳湖的湖面提取及变化分析。首先,用全年遥感数据合成获得当年最大湖面;然后,在此最大湖面范围内,识别出每景数据的水体和陆地状态;最后,统计一定时期内每个像元的水淹没比例,并据此分析湖泊的年际和季节变化特征。该算法的最大优势是克服了云的干扰,以及湖面快速变化造成的年际变化对比分析困难问题。算法应用于2000-2010年MODIS观测,分析结果表明,本算法检测出的湖面面积与鄱阳湖水文站水位观测资料非常一致;算法可以获得鄱阳湖湖面面积的显著季节变化信息;2000-2010年间,鄱阳湖湖面面积在丰水期未发现有规律的变化;在枯水期,2003年后湖面面积急剧减小。     

近20年来厦门市滩涂养殖时空演变与政策驱动分析

沿海滩涂是一种重要的湿地资源,也是一种重要的可再生的后备土地资源。在滨海城市,滩涂养殖的时空演变过程能敏感反映产业经济发展、生态环境变化及政策导向三个因素之间的博弈关系。对此,利用1986、1989、1993、1997年TM遥感影像和2001、2003年ETM+遥感影像以及2004年SPOT遥感影像,用单一土地利用动态度、景观破碎度和重心迁移模型,对近20年来厦门市滩涂养殖的时空演变过程进行了分析。结果表明:滩涂养殖面积从1986年的2661.85hm²持续增长到2003年的9776.45hm²,增长了2.67倍,2004年则开始下降到9510.98hm²,在此期间面积的年均变化率从1986～1989年的19.80%逐渐下降到2003～2004年的-2.72%;1986～2004年养殖区的景观破碎度均小于0.00080;空间分布重心总体上向东北方向迁移。对政策驱动机制的初步研究表明,养殖区的这种变化过程与当地的一系列政策措施存在着宏观响应关系。     

海峡两岸城市绿地遥感监测与对比分析

以福州和台北的ASTER和TM遥感影像为数据源,提取两市中心城区绿地信息并计算景观生态指标。对比分析结果表明:1988～2004年期间,两市中心城区面积增加,绿地面积及其所占比例减少,但福州城镇扩张速度和绿地面积所占比例下降幅度远大于台北;两市绿地斑块形状趋向简化,连通性变小,聚集程度降低;与2004年福州相比,2003年台北中心城区绿地的形状更规则,连通性更强,聚集程度较高。     

Dynamic monitoring of soil erosion for upper stream of Miyun Reservoir in the last 30 years

The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE) was applied to assess the spatial distribution and dynamic properties of soil loss with geographic information system(GIS) and remote sensing(RS) technologies.To improve the accuracy of soil-erosion estimates,a new C-factor estimation model was developed based on land cover and time series normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI) datasets.The new C-factor was then applied in the RUSLE to integrate rainfall,soil,vegetation,and topography data of different periods,and thus monitor the distribution of soil erosion patterns and their dynamics during a 30-year period of the upstream watershed of Miyun Reservoir(UWMR),China.The results showed that the new C-factor estimation method,which considers land cover status and dynamics,and explicitly incorporates within-land cover variability,was more rational,quantitative,and reliable.An average annual soil loss in UWMR of 25.68,21.04,and 16.80 t ha-1a-1was estimated for 1990,2000 and 2010,respectively,corroborated by comparing spatial and temporal variation in sediment yield.Between 2000 and 2010,a 1.38% average annual increase was observed in the area of lands that lost less than 5 t ha-1a-1,while during 1990-2000 such lands only increased on average by 0.46%.Areas that classified as severe,very severe and extremely severe accounted for 5.68% of the total UWMR in 2010,and primarily occurred in dry areas or grasslands of sloping fields.The reason for the change in rate of soil loss is explained by an increased appreciation of soil conservation by developers and planners.Moreover,we recommend that UWMR watershed adopt further conservation measures such as terraced plowing of dry land,afforestation,or grassland enclosures as part of a concerted effort to reduce on-going soil erosion.     

Industrial green spatial pattern evolution of Yangtze River Economic Belt in China

We use the directional slacks-based measure of efficiency and inverse distance weighting method to analyze the spatial pattern evolution of the industrial green total factor productivity of 108 cities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt in 2003–2013.Results show that both the subprime mortgage crisis and ‘the new normal' had significant negative effects on productivity growth,leading to the different spatial patterns between 2003–2008 and 2009–2013.Before 2008,green poles had gathered around some capital cities and formed a tripartite pattern,which was a typical core-periphery pattern.Due to a combination of the polarization and the diffusion effects,capital cities became the growth poles and ‘core' regions,while surrounding areas became the ‘periphery'.This was mainly caused by the innate advantage of capital cities and ‘the rise of central China' strategy.After 2008,the tripartite pattern changed to a multi-poles pattern where green poles continuously and densely spread in the midstream and downstream areas.This is due to the regional difference in the leading effect of green poles.The leading effect of green poles in midstream and downstream areas has changed from polarization to diffusion,while the polarization effect still leads in the upstream area.