Allometry in the pliocene bivalveAstarte omalii: A new look at an old data set

The relationships between ontogeny and phylogeny have been studied for the bivalve Astarte omaliifrom the Lower, Middle, and Upper Pliocene of Belgium using canonical variates analysis, principal components in the form of multivariate allometry, and bivariate power functions or allometric equations. The results indicate that the three samples represent segments of a single evolutionary lineage which is characterized mainly by paedomorphosis where adult descendants are similar to juvenile ancestors. Recapitulation or peramorphosis is only observed for a single parameter. The Lower and Middle Pliocene samples are considered as Astarte omalii omalii,whereas the Upper Pliocene specimens are placed in A. omalii basteroti.The evolutionary trends most likely reflect changes in the living positions of the bivalves.     

A new look at an old unconformity: field and geochemical data from James Hutton's original unconformity on the Isle of Arran, Scotland

In the year 1787, while visiting the Isle of Arran in southwestern Scotland, James Hutton made the initial discovery of what is now called an angular unconformity. In his example, Dalradian (Neoproterozoic - Cambrian) metasedimentary rocks are overlain by Early Carboniferous (Dinantian) sedimentary rocks of fluvial origin. The exact position of the plane of unconformity has been uncertain because of the presence of a resistant carbonate-rich zone (cornstone) on the Dalradian paleosurface. Whereas the unconformity was previously placed in an erosional re-entrant beneath the prominent carbonate-rich layer, it should be located at the contact between the Dalradian metasedimentary rocks, including those affected by cornstone formation, and overlying Dinantian pebbly sandstones. A prominent set of joints in the Dalradian rocks is sub-parallel to bedding in the overlying Carboniferous rocks and has contributed to ambiguity concerning placement of the plane of unconformity. A second exposure of Hutton's unconformity, at the SW end of the same small Carboniferous outlier on the Arran coast, displays the contact relationships unambiguously. Geochemical investigation of samples from the new locality shows that the cornstones are enriched in CaO, volatiles (LOI), MgO, and MnO. Formation of the cornstone involved replacement of siliciclastic Dalradian metasediments by dolomite. Relative to the fresh Dalradian rocks, the cornstones are depleted in most trace elements, but display enrichment in Sr, Y, Cu, and REE. The cornstone is enriched in REE in a systematic fashion, with a particularly strong concentration of MREE. A mirror-image pattern in the associated Dalradian rocks suggests that the REE enrichment observed in the cornstone is a result of leaching from the country rocks by groundwater, followed by evaporative concentration.     

A new look at rifts

Rift valleys have always enthralled geologists. They are the rents in the Earth's crust produced when continental plates pull apart. Besides telling us something about the evolution of our planet, they also act as topographic sumps in which parts of the sedimentary record of Earth history are often best preserved. Yet our understanding of how, where, and why rifts form has only recently come of age with new models of structure and sedimentation.     

A new look at anomalous X-ray Pulsars

We explore the possibility of explaining Anomalous X-ray Pulsars (AXPs) and Soft Gammaray Repeaters (SGRs) in a scenario with fall-back magnetic accretion onto a young isolated neutron star. The X-ray emission of the pulsar in this case originates due to the accretion of matter onto the surface of the neutron star from a magnetic slab surrounding its magnetosphere. The spin-down rate of the neutron star expected in this picture is close to the observed value. We show that such neutron stars are relatively young and are going through the transition from the propeller state to the accretor state. The pulsar’s activity in gamma-rays is connected with its relative youth, and is enabled by energy stored in a non-equilibrium layer located in the crust of the low-mass neutron star. This energy can be released due to the mixing of matter in the neutron star crust with super heavy nuclei approaching its surface and becoming unstable. The fission of nuclei in the low-density region initiates chain reactions leading to a nuclear explosion. Outbursts are probably triggered by instability developing in the region where the matter accreted by the neutron star accumulates in the magnetic polar regions.     

A new look at the Lower Greensand using ground–penetrating radar

The Wobum Sands Formation is Aptian to Albian in age and forms part of the lower Greensand Group, which crops out in the Weald Basin, East Anglia and the Isle of Wight. The sands are thought to have accumulated in a narrow tidal seaway connecting the Boreal Sea to the Tethys Ocean and early North Atlantic Ocean. Here I present new information on the geometry and internal character of large sedimentary structures exposed in sand pits near Leighton Buzzard, which have been imaged using ground–penetrating radar.     

Paleomagnetism of the North American Precambrian: a look at the data base

More than half of the approximately 650 paleopoles reported from all Precambrian cratons have been obtained from North America. The observations have spurred a proliferation of apparent polar wander paths to support different hypotheses for the tectonic evolution of the continent. Many of the reasons for this development can be traced to the inadequacy of the data base with its average of only 1.6 poles 10 Ma^?1 (as compared to 7 poles 10^?1 Ma for the last 300 Ma). Even when it is assumed that a ·primary’ pole has been derived from each rock unit sampled, the total number of ·primary’ poles (excluding the 900–1200 Ma interval) yields an average of only 0.4 pole 10 Ma^?1. An inspection of the data base shows a non-systematic sampling of a non-continuous (fragmented) paleomagnetic record with gaps as large as tens and even hundreds of Ma. More importantly, a search through the literature reveals that very few poles have an age known to better than 50 Ma and for many poles the age bracket could be as large as a few hundreds of Ma. This is partly owing to the fact that radiometric and paleomagnetic sites rarely originate from the same localities. It is shown that this limited data base with all its deficiencies and uncertainties cannot be used to support certain hypotheses, or for the drawing of a meaningful apparent polar path for the whole of the Precambrian. It appears that, because of the enormous time scale, Precambrian paleomagnetism should rather be directed towards the construction of segments of polar paths such as those in the 900–1200 Ma interval. Comparison of well dated contemporaneous segments from different parts (or structural provinces) could be used most effectively to delineate relative movements, if any, and reconstruct the mosaic of the past continent for certain time intervals. One of the recent developments of Precambrian paleomagnetism has been to show that the apparent pole did not remain constrained to the equatorial region, but made several excursions into high latitudes.     

Investigation of desaturation in an old tunnel and new galleries at an argillaceous site

A numerical investigation of the desaturation process at the argillaceous Tournemire site has been carried out. This desaturation is initialized by the contact of the saturated rock with the ambient air in excavated openings. The used hydraulical model is based on the Richards’ approximation for unsaturated one phase flow coupled with the deformation of a porous medium with anisotropic linearly elastic behavior. In relation to the extent of the desaturated zone around an excavated opening, the intrinsic permeability and the relative permeability have been identified to be the most important model parameters. The mechanical deformation process itself, the seasonal influences and the tunnel lining are less important for the formation of the desaturated zone. The comparison with measured saturation values bares some difficulties but indicates the principle capacity of the applied finite element codes to simulate the desaturation process. The consideration of seasonal changes in humidity in the ambient air results in a constantly recurring desaturation–resaturation cycle in the near field of the openings. This seasonally influenced zone amount 1–2 m and is nearly independent from time and from a variation of model parameters within a reasonable range. The possibility of material weakening in this zone is of special interest, since claystone is a potential host rock for the disposal of radioactive waste.     

Landforms and archaeological site location in the little Missouri badlands: A new look at some well-established patterns

Patterns in the distribution of archaeological sites in the Little Missouri Badlands of North Dakota have previously been attributed to prehistoric cultural preference for certain landforms. These patterns include the concentration of Plains Archaic sites in upland settings and the predominance of Late Prehistoric sites in the alluvial lowlands. An understanding of Holocene stratigraphy provides new insights into these patterns, and other spatial/temporal aspects of the archaeological record. These insights in turn illustrate the need for comprehensive stratigraphic studies prior to the formulation of prehistoric settlement models in highly eroded environments. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Continental mantle seismic anisotropy: a new look at the Twin Sisters massif

Recent interpretations of upper continental mantle seismic anisotropy observations have often relied on fabric measurements and calculated anisotropies of upper mantle xenoliths. Seismic ray paths of P and S waves, which provide information on azimuthal compressional wave anisotropy and shear wave splitting, are tens to hundreds of kilometers, whereas, xenoliths are usually only a few centimeters in diameter. To place better constraints on field-based anisotropy observations and to evaluate anisotropy information provided by xenoliths, it is important to examine anisotropy in large ultramafic massifs which have originated in the upper mantle. One such massif is the Twin Sisters Range located in the western portion of the North Cascades of Washington State, USA. The Twin Sisters massif, a slab of unaltered dunite, is 16 km in length, 6 km in width and 3 km thick. Exposed along its south and west sides are mafic granulite facies rocks, which likely represent lower continental crustal fragments. The ultramafic rocks are porphyroclastic in texture, consisting of strained, flattened porphyroclasts of olivine and enstatite and strain-free olivine mosaics. Olivine fabrics are typical of those formed at high temperatures and low strain rates. Petrofabrics and calculated anisotropies of individual samples vary throughout the massif, however, overall anisotropy of the body is significant, with maximum P and S waves anisotropies of 5.4% and 3.9%, respectively. The maximum delay time for split shear waves traveling through a 100-km-thick slab is 0.8 s and two directions of shear wave singularity are observed. The directions of maximum shear wave splitting and shear wave singularities do not coincide with the directions of maximum and minimum compressional wave velocity. In general, individual hand samples show significantly higher anisotropy than the overall anisotropy of the massif. It is concluded that simple averages of xenolith anisotropies are unreliable for use in the interpretation of field anisotropy observations.     

The smallest of the largest: a new look at possible dwarfing in sauropod dinosaurs

Franz Baron Nopcsa recognised that the Late Cretaceous titanosaurid sauropod from Transylvania, Magyarosaurus dacus, was much smaller than the better known sauropods from the Upper Jurassic of the United States and even from Late Cretaceous deposits elsewhere in the world. In keeping with his biogeographic interpretations, Nopcsa viewed this difference as a consequence of body-size effects via island habitation. We present a preliminary re-evaluation of Nopcsa's claims and their heterochronic consequences using two approaches, viz. (1) regression analysis of humeral data as a means of establishing patterns in body size among titanosaurids, and (2) optimisation of humeral data onto titanosaurid cladograms to evaluate evolutionary trends within the clade. Our regression analysis is based on twenty species distributed among fourteen genera of neosauropods and uses length and mid-shaft mediolateral width of the humerus of presumed fully adult forms, and of growth samples that consist of postnatal to adult individuals. Linear regression analysis suggests that, among adult neosauropods, M. dacus appears to be represented by the smallest individuals; that M. dacus humeri appear to be more similar to those of subadults than to adults of other taxa; and that this juvenile morphology may constitute dwarfing in M. dacus by paedomorphosis. In order for these regressions to reflect their evolutionary context more fully, we also present optimisation analyses of humeral form within Titanosauroidea. Although many aspects of the phylogeny of this clade are relatively poorly resolved, preliminary results of our analyses are consistent with the conclusion that M. dacus was a heterochronic dwarf.     

Allometry and body length of abelisauroid theropods: Pycnonemosaurus nevesi is the new king

Abelisauroid dinosaurs normally reached an average body length (BL) of 5–9 m, but there are controversies due to the incomplete or fragmentary nature of most specimens. For Ekrixinatosaurus, for example, BL was estimated as 10–11 m or 7–8 m; for Pycnonemosaurus it was proposed 7–8 m, however its preserved bones are larger than any other described abelisauroid. The lack of a consistent methodology complicates comparisons of estimated BL, so we reevaluated the estimative for the seven most complete specimens of abelisauroids and compared the values against 40 measurements from the skull, vertebrae and appendicular elements using bivariate equations. It allowed estimating the BL of other 30, less complete, specimens of abelisauroids and to evaluate the allometric scaling of the skeletal parts. Strong correlations (R² > 0.96) were obtained for all vertebrae and hindlimb measurements, as well as skull height, and length of skull roof, lacrimal–squamosal, scapulocoracoid and humerus; other skull and forelimb measurements present weak correlation due to extreme morphological transformations observed in Abelisauridae and were not adequate for BL estimation. Abelisauroids gradually increased in size during evolution: the mean BL was 3.3 ± 2.5 m for basal abelisauroids and Noasauridae, 5.4 ± 1.8 m for basal Brachyrostra and Majungasauridae, and 7.1 ± 2.1 m for Furileusaura. Despite this variation, diversity of BL on each geographic region and stratigraphic epoch was relatively constant (BL usually varied from 4 to 8 m). The smallest noasaurid and abelisaurid are, respectively, Velocisaurus (1.5 ± 0.1 m) and Genusaurus (3.6 ± 0.0 m). The largest abelisaurids is Pycnonemosaurus nevesi (8.9 ± 0.3 m) followed by Carnotaurus (7.8 ± 0.3 m), Abelisaurus (7.4 ± 0.7 m) and Ekrixinatosaurus (7.4 ± 0.8 m). Skull measurement scale negatively at a similar rate but the height scales almost isometrically and the skull roof length scales more negatively; this probably caused a bending on the skull that may explain the upward orientation of the snout in large taxa.     

Peridotites from the Mariana Trough: first look at the mantle beneath an active back-arc basin

Two dives of the DSV Shinkai 6500 in the Mariana Trough back-arc basin in the western Pacific sampled back-arc basin mantle exposures. Reports of peridotite exposures in back-arc basin setting are very limited and the lack of samples has hindered our understanding of this important aspect of lithospheric evolution. The Mariana Trough is a slow-spreading ridge, and ultramafic exposures with associated gabbro dykes or sills are located within a segment boundary. Petrological data suggest that the Mariana Trough peridotites are moderately depleted residues after partial melting of the upper mantle. Although some peridotite samples are affected by small-scale metasomatism, there is no evidence of pervasive post-melting metasomatism or melt-mantle interaction. Spinel compositions plot in the field for abyssal peridotites. Clinopyroxenes show depletions in Ti, Zr, and REE that are intermediate between those documented for peridotites from the Vulcan and Bouvet fracture zones (the American-Antarctic and Southwest Indian ridges, respectively). The open-system melting model indicates that the Mariana Trough peridotite compositions roughly correspond to theoretical residual compositions after ~7% near-fractional melting of a depleted MORB-type upper mantle with only little melt or fluid/mantle interactions. The low degree of melting is consistent with a low magma budget, resulting in ultramafic exposure. We infer that the mantle flow beneath the Mariana Trough Central Graben is episodic, resulting in varying magma supply rate at spreading segments.     

Caves: new and old

Caves represent underground drainage routes formed by the passage of water through soluble rocks. Caves and the deposits they contain preserve evidence of landscape evolution and climatic change together with sediments and fossils that elsewhere have been destroyed by erosion.     

Salt marsh litter and detritivores: A closer look at redundancy

Most primary production of angiosperms in coastal salt marshes enters the detritivore food web; studies of this link have predominantly focused on one plant species (Spartina alterniflora) and one detritivore species (Littoraria irrorata). In mesocosm experiments, we studied the rates and pattern of decomposition of litter derived from four plant species common in southeastern United States coastal salt marshes and marsh-fringing terrestrial habitats. Crustanceans and gastropods were selected as detritivores feeding on, and affecting degradation of, the litter of two monocotyledons and two dicotyledons. Despite interspecific similarities in consumption, detritivores exhibited species-specific effects on litter chemistry and on the activity of litter-colonizing microbiota. The chemical composition of feces depended upon both the litter type and the detritivores’ species-specific digestive capabilities. Growth rates and survival of detritivores differed among litter species. Different salt marsh detritivores are likely to have different effects on decomposition processes in the salt marsh and cannot be regarded as functionally redundant nor can the litter of different plant species be regard ed as redundant as food for marsh detritivores.     

Boron isotopes as pH proxy: A new look at boron speciation in deep-sea corals using B MAS NMR and EELS

Dissolved boron in modern seawater occurs in the form of two species, trigonal boric acid B(OH)₃ and tetrahedral borate ion . One of the key assumption in the use of boron isotopic compositions of carbonates as pH proxy is that only borate ions, , are incorporated into the carbonate. Here, we investigate the speciation of boron in deep-sea coral microstructures (Lophelia pertusa specimen) by using high field magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (¹¹B MAS NMR) and electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS). We observe both boron coordination species, but in different proportions depending on the coral microstructure, i.e. centres of calcification versus fibres. These results suggest that careful sampling is necessary before performing boron isotopic measurements in deep-sea corals. By combining the proportions of B(OH)₃ and determined by NMR and our previous ion microprobe boron isotope measurements, we propose a new equation for the relation between seawater pH and boron isotopic composition in deep-sea corals.     

The Triangle Shearzone, Zimbabwe, revisited: new data document an important event at 2.0 Ga in the Limpopo Belt

The Limpopo Belt in Southern Africa has been used to demonstrate that modern-style continent-continent collision operated during the Late Archaean (2.6–2.7 Ga). We have studied the age and PT conditions of strike-slip tectonism along the important right-lateral Triangle Shearzone. Our results substantiate existing Proterozoic metamorphic mineral age data of prior uncertain significance. Using the PbPb and SmNd garnet chronometers and the ArAr step heating technique for amphibole, we have dated pre- and syn-tectonic metamorphic minerals at 2.2 and 2.0 Ga. Thus the Triangle Shearzone can now be regarded as an important Proterozoic suture. Examination of corresponding high-grade PT conditions, reaching 800°C at 9 kbar, indicates a clockwise metamorphic evolution with pronounced isothermal uplift. Although the evidence that thrusting of the Marginal Zones of the Limpopo Belt over the adjoining cratons occurred during the Late Archaean clearly remains, it is now very uncertain to which event the various PT paths obtained in the Limpopo Belt may be assigned. Therefore the question of whether the 2.6–2.7 Ga tectonism fits on its own a modern-style continental collision model remains open and has to be reassessed.