Heat flow and the structure of Precambrian lithosphere

Studies of heat flow from Precambrian terrains have demonstrated three empirical relationships; a temporal relationship between heat flow and tectonic age, a spatial pattern between heat flow and the proximity of Archean cratons, and a temporal relationship between heat flow and the age of lithosphere stabilization. In the first relationship, heat flow is inversely related to tectonic age. The second pattern is characterized by low heat flow from Archean cratons and Proterozoic terrains adjacent to cratonic margins (pericratonic terrains), and higher heat flow from Proterozoic terrains that are more than a few hundred kilometers from a craton. In the third pattern, heat flow decreases as the age of stabilization of the lithosphere increases. A number of interpretations of Precambrian heat flow have been offered to explain one or more of these relationships. The simple cooling of a thermal boundary layer predicts essentially no change in heat flow in terrains older than 1.5 Ga, and therefore does not likely provide a comprehensive framework for the interpretation of Precambrian heat flow. By contrast, two other interpretations, (1) thicker lithosphere beneath Archean terrains than beneath Proterozoic terrains, and (2) greater heat production in Proterozoic crust than in Archean crust, when combined with the special structural configuration of sutures, can both contribute to the spatial and temporal heat flow distributions. Xenolith thermobarometry constraints on lithospheric temperatures, however, limit the contribution of age-dependent crustal heat production, and therefore at least part of the heat flow distributions derive from variations in lithosphere thickness.     

岩心中的天然缝与诱导缝的识别与分析——以鄂尔多斯盆地延长组岩心裂缝为例

由于取心成本昂贵, 从岩心中获得天然缝、诱导缝和其他构造特征的准确信息显得尤为重要。岩心裂缝识别中的一项重要任务是判识天然缝和诱导缝。文中综合论述了天然缝和诱导缝的物理特征, 重点分析了天然缝形态及发育过程和诱导缝的多种成因模式, 并以鄂尔多斯盆地延长组岩心中裂缝为例进行分析。文中引用了国外对裂缝研究常用的专业术语, 指出裂缝面形态结构是追踪模式Ⅰ裂缝(节理)从扩展初始点到终止处的运动学的关键, 这在岩心裂缝和露头裂缝分析中是非常有用的。     

鄂尔多斯地块南缘构造演化及其对盆地腹部的构造—沉积分异的效应

鄂尔多斯地块南缘处在盆地与秦岭造山带之间这一盆—山结合的过渡部位,由于构造位置的特殊性,自古生代以来其构造及沉积面貌与盆地腹部地区存在较大差异,具体表现在：1）早古生代沉积开始早、结束晚;2）晚古生代沉积开始晚;3）印支期西南部发生局部坳陷沉降;4）燕山晚期盆地南部强烈抬升（远高于盆地东部的同期抬升）;5）喜马拉雅期渭河地区快速沉陷与渭北隆升。盆地南部经历了3次大的构造格局转换：一是晚古生代末—印支期西南部“由隆到坳”的构造转换;二是印支期末—燕山期主体构造走向由北西—南东向到南北向的转换（构造转向）;三是燕山期末—喜马拉雅期渭河地区由强烈隆升到快速沉降的转换（构造反转）。盆地南部在不同时期所表现出的与盆地本部的不同耦合特征均根源于区域大地构造背景的差异：1）早古生代处于活动大陆边缘构造环境;2）海西期—印支期受古特提斯洋开裂—闭合的影响;3）燕山期受古太平洋板块俯冲的影响;4）喜马拉雅期受印度板块俯冲与太平洋板块俯冲的共同制约。鄂尔多斯地块南缘经历强烈伸展与造山过程,引起了其与盆地腹部的构造—沉积分异。     

鄂尔多斯盆地铀富集分布的影响因素分析

前人研究成果分析表明,鄂尔多斯盆地石油主要富集于三叠系延长组和侏罗系地层,天然气主要为下古生界气藏,煤主要赋存于石炭系至侏罗系诸多地层。收集到的地质、测井资料和岩芯分析资料表明铀赋存于盆地奥陶系、石炭二叠系、三叠系、侏罗系及白垩系地层,铀在盆地深部和浅部地层赋存特征不同,深部地层的高自然伽马异常与铀丰度相关性显著。断裂构造存在证据和分布特征研究表明,鄂尔多斯盆地断裂构造发育,且对铀元素分布具有重要作用。本研究表明,盆地历经的构造运动和沉积环境变迁决定了多种矿产的赋存特征,盆地中油、气、煤对铀富集分布具有积极的促进作用。盆地内有机质丰度与铀异常关系密切。     

Thermal and mechanical structure of the central Iberian Peninsula lithosphere

The central Iberian Peninsula (Spain) is made up of three main tectonic units: a mountain range, the Spanish Central System and two Tertiary basins (those of the rivers Duero and Tajo). These units are the result of widespread foreland deformation of the Iberian plate interior in response to Alpine convergence of European and African plates. The present study was designed to investigate thermal structure and rheological stratification in this region of central Spain. Surface heat flow has been described to range from 80 to 60 mW m⁻². Highest surface heat flow values correspond to the Central System and northern part of the Tajo Basin. The relationship between elevation and thermal state was used to construct a one-dimensional thermal model. Mantle heat flow drops from 34 mW m⁻² (Duero Basin) to 27 mW m⁻² (Tajo Basin), and increases with diminishing surface heat flow. Strength predictions made by extrapolating experimental data indicate varying rheological stratification throughout the area. In general, in compression, ductile fields predominate in the middle and lower crusts and lithospheric mantle. Brittle behaviour is restricted to the first 8 km of the upper crust and to a thin layer at the top of the middle crust. In tension, brittle layers are slightly more extended, while the lower crust and lithospheric mantle remain ductile in the case of a wet peridotite composition. Discontinuities in brittle and ductile layer thickness determine lateral rheological anisotropy. Tectonic units roughly correspond to rheological domains. Brittle layers reach their maximum thickness beneath the Duero Basin and are of least thickness under the Tajo Basin, especially its northern area. Estimated total lithospheric strength shows a range from 2.5×10¹² to 8×10¹² N m⁻¹ in compression, and from 1.3×10¹² to 1.6×10¹² N m⁻¹ in tension. Highest values were estimated for the Duero Basin.Depth versus frequency of earthquakes correlates well with strength predictions. Earthquake foci concentrate mainly in the upper crust, showing a peak close to maximum strength depth. Most earthquakes occur in the southern margin of the Central System and southeast Tajo Basin. Seismicity is related to major faults, some bounding rheological domains. The Duero Basin is a relative quiescence zone characterised by higher total lithospheric strength than the remaining units.     

On the role of heat flow, lithosphere thickness and lithosphere density on gravitational potential stresses

Gravitational potential stresses (GPSt) are known to play a first-order role in the state of stress of the Earth's lithosphere. Previous studies focussed mainly on crust elevation and structure and little attention has been paid to modelling GPSt using realistic lithospheric structures. The aim of the present contribution is to quantify gravitational potential energies and stresses associated with stable lithospheric domains. In order to model realistic lithosphere structures, a wide variety of data are considered: surface heat flow, chemical depletion of mantle lithosphere, crustal thickness and elevation. A numerical method is presented which involves classical steady-state heat equations to derive lithosphere thickness, geotherm and density distribution, but additionally requires the studied lithosphere to be isostatically compensated at its base. The impact of varying surface and crustal heat flow, topography, Moho depth and crust density on the signs and magnitudes of predicted GPSt is systematically explored. In clear contrast with what is assumed in most previous studies, modelling results show that the density structure of the mantle lithosphere has a significant impact on the value of the predicted GPSt, in particular in the case of thick lithospheres. Using independent information from the literature, the method was applied to get insights in the state of stress of continental domains with contrasting tectono-thermal ages. The modelling results suggest that in the absence of tectonic stresses Phanerozoic and Proterozoic lithospheres are spontaneously submitted to compression whereas Archean lithospheres are in a neutral to slightly tensile stress state. These findings are in general in good agreement with global stress measurements and observed geoid undulations.     

中国西部及邻区岩石圈热状态与流变学强度特征

根据均衡原理制约的地热计算得到中国西部及邻区岩石圈的温度分布状态,以40、100km和莫霍面深度等温线图的形式表示,同时计算了以1 350℃等温面深度表示的中国西部及邻区的热岩石圈厚度。结果显示:中国大陆西北部地区、哈萨克斯坦东部地区以及上扬子地块、蒙古中西部地区和青藏高原中部的深部地温较低,青藏高原北部、东部以及天山褶皱带中部的深部地温高。在中国西部及邻区范围内,岩石圈厚度在180km以上的地区包括准噶尔盆地,塔里木盆地核心部位,西藏东部、中部以及祁连山地区。上扬子地块(四川盆地)岩石圈厚度为160km或更多,蒙古中西部地区以及哈萨克斯坦东部地区的岩石圈厚度为140～180km。青藏高原东部边缘和藏北地区以及天山中部吉尔吉斯伊塞克湖地区的岩石圈厚度较薄(<140km)。地热计算得到的结果与地震层析成像研究结果之间相互吻合。采用湿的上地幔流变学模型的计算结果表明,青藏高原及其东部边缘、天山褶皱带中部和蒙古中西部地区的岩石圈流变学强度模型为"奶油蛋糕(crèmebrlée)"型,其强度剖面显示强地壳而弱地幔的特点;上扬子地块(四川盆地)、准噶尔盆地、塔里木盆地和哈萨克斯坦东部地区岩石圈流变学强度模型为"果冻三明治(jelly sandwich)"型。     

鄂尔多斯盆地西缘煤田构造演化及其控制因素

鄂尔多斯盆地西缘位于华北陆块和秦祁昆山造山带两个一级大地构造单元之间的过渡带内, 特定的大地构造背景使其具有复杂的构造演化历程及特殊的煤田构造格局。鄂尔多斯盆地西缘由贺兰山逆冲推覆构造系统和六盘山东麓逆冲推覆构造系统组成, 具有"南北分段、东西分带"的特点。为了进一步探讨鄂尔多斯盆地西缘煤田构造格局的形成演化及区域构造控制因素, 本文基于野外地质调查和煤田勘查资料, 恢复了本区自晚古生代以来的沉降抬升史和古构造应力场特征。印支期: 研究区北部最大主压应力方向为北西—南东向, 南部最大主压应力方向为北东—南西向, 燕山期: 北部最大主压应力方向为北西西—南东东向, 南部最大主压应力方向为北东东—南西西向, 喜马拉雅山期: 北部受北西西—南东东向拉张应力, 南部最大主压应力方向为北东—南西向。采用有限元数值模拟, 探讨了鄂尔多斯盆地西缘煤田构造格局的形成与区域构造的演化的关系, 强调北段贺兰山逆冲推覆构造系统的形成与阿拉善地块的向东挤出逃逸密切相关。     

鄂尔多斯地块西南缘宁夏固原地区原位地应力测量结果及其成因

鄂尔多斯地块西南缘新构造活动强烈、地震频发,具有复杂多样的构造变形模式和活动特征。为了解鄂尔多斯地块西南缘地壳浅部地应力分布规律及断层稳定性,利用宁夏固原地区的水压致裂地应力测量数据,结合其他实测及震源机制解资料,分析了鄂尔多斯地块西南缘构造应力场特征。结果表明：①研究区2个钻孔的主应力关系整体表现为SH > Sv > Sh,水平应力起主导作用,属于走滑型应力状态,钻孔附近最大水平主应力方位平均为N59°W,与震源机制解获得的青藏高原东北缘主压应力方位有差异,推断鄂尔多斯地块西南缘现今NWW向走滑剪切应力环境的形成可能主要受到海原断裂带和六盘山断裂带的影响,应为局部构造和区域构造应力场共同作用的结果。②利用Mohr-Coulomb准则及Byerlee定律,摩擦系数取0.6~1.0,对研究区的现今地应力状态分析后发现,鄂尔多斯地块西南缘海原断裂带和六盘山断裂带的地应力大小未达到地壳浅部断层产生滑动失稳的临界条件,处于较稳定的应力状态。该研究成果为鄂尔多斯地块关键构造部位的断裂活动性分析和地质环境安全评价提供了参考依据。     

鄂尔多斯盆地麻黄山西区块延长、延安组裂缝成因及期次

裂缝的形成是一个复杂过程,对其成因及期次研究需要通过多方面的资料进行综合分析加以确定.对鄂尔多斯盆地麻黄山西区块裂缝的研究首先选择了相似露头区进行裂缝的野外调查,野外裂缝特征表明:裂缝组系不稳定,受构造变形强度、形态所控制,且构造变形越强,裂缝的发育密度越大;确定了裂缝以构造成因为主.通过研究区23口取心井岩心裂缝观察描述,岩心上裂缝主要以垂直或者高角度斜交张性缝为主,且岩心上裂缝之间的切割、限制及组合关系表明了裂缝期次至少存在2期.最后在野外和岩心裂缝特征、成因及期次认识的基础上,进行了岩石声发射实验、裂缝充填物稳定碳氧同位素分析实验,并结合研究区构造演化背景确定了研究区裂缝形成期次主要有两期,可能分别对应研究区燕山运动二幕和三幕两个构造活动时期.     

鄂尔多斯盆地基底演化及其对盖层控制作用

基底演化过程与其上覆沉积盖层的发展密切相关,因而可以通过盖层与基底的构造格局对比分析来推断基底演化的主要阶段,并进一步讨论盆地基底演化与盖层变形之间的相互作用。研究发现,鄂尔多斯盆地基底演化与自身结构和受力方式均有密切关系,同时对盖层变形有重要控制作用。早古生代在南北向洋-陆碰撞背景下,基底受自身组成结构制约在盆地内部发育了北东向隆坳相间的构造格局,晚古生代受南北向陆-陆碰撞的影响而在早期北东向展布的隆坳构造基础上叠加了南北向的中央古隆起,由于此时厚度较小,盖层的整体格局与局部形态都受控于基底的构造格局。至中生代燕山期,盆地受到了东西向挤压作用,基底内部形态基本保持不变,盆地基底边缘有明显的垂向活动,具体表现为东升西降;此时盖层发育已较为完整,因此更多地体现了相对孤立演化的特征,但其“跷跷板”式的运动总体上仍受到基底边缘升降活动的控制。     

鄂尔多斯盆地煤层气资源及开发潜力分析

鄂尔多斯盆地含石炭—二叠纪和侏罗纪两套含煤岩系,煤层发育,厚度大。石炭—二叠纪煤层煤级高,为气煤—无烟煤,含气量高,为2.46～23.25m3/t;侏罗纪煤层煤级低,以长焰煤为主,含气量低,为0.01～6.29m3/t。全盆地煤层气总资源量为107235.7×108m3,占全国煤层气总资源量的1/3,煤层气勘探开发潜力巨大。煤层气开发最有利区块包括鄂尔多斯东缘的河东煤田和陕北石炭—二叠纪煤田、鄂尔多斯南缘的渭北煤田,有利区块包括鄂尔多斯南部黄陇煤田、鄂尔多斯西部庆阳含煤区和灵武-盐池-韦州含煤区。可见煤层气最有利和有利区块主要沿盆缘分布。鄂尔多斯盆地东缘、渭北煤田、黄陇煤田是目前煤层气勘探的热点地区,勘探成果预示出良好的开发前景。     

Time-dependent cracking and brittle creep in crustal rocks: A review

Rock fracture under upper crustal conditions is driven not only by applied stresses, but also by time-dependent, chemically activated subcritical cracking processes. These subcritical processes are of great importance for the understanding of the mechanical behaviour of rocks over geological timescales. A macroscopic manifestation of time-dependency in the brittle field is the observation that rocks can deform and fail at constant applied stresses, a phenomenon known as brittle creep. Here, we review the available experimental evidence for brittle creep in crustal rocks, and the various models developed to explain the observations. Laboratory experiments have shown that brittle creep occurs in all major rock types, and that creep strain rates are extremely sensitive to the environmental conditions: differential stress, confining pressure, temperature and pore fluid composition. Even small changes in any of these parameters produce order of magnitude changes in creep strain rates (and times-to-failure). Three main classes of brittle creep model have been proposed to explain these observations: phenomenological, statistical, and micromechanical. Statistical and micromechanical models explain qualitatively how the increasing influence of microcrack interactions and/or the increasing accumulated damage produces the observed evolution of macroscopic deformation during brittle creep. However, no current model can predict quantitatively all of the observed features of brittle creep. Experimental data are limited by the timescale over which experiments are realistically feasible. Clearly, an extension of the range of available laboratory data to lower strain rates, and the development of new modelling approaches are needed to further improve our current understanding of time-dependent brittle deformation in rocks.     

鄂尔多斯盆地延长组页岩裂缝特征与地应力研究

鄂尔多斯盆地延长组是我国近些年陆相页岩气的重点勘探区之一。本文从页岩的露头观测、岩石学特征、成像测井分析、地应力特征及可压裂性等方面,研究了鄂尔多斯盆地延长组泥页岩层段的裂缝发育特征,以及地应力对人工压裂诱导缝的影响。基于岩石学分析,延长组长7和长9段的泥页岩脆性矿物平均含量较高,分别为57.2%和44%。根据泥页岩露头观测和成像测井分析,长7段泥页岩发育有北东东向为主的垂直裂缝组,同时可见北北东向和南北向的垂直裂缝组。此外,压裂诱导缝的优势方位和成像测井分析结果表明,现今最大水平主应力方向为70°左右（即北东东向）。裂缝开启性分析表明,北东东向至近东西向裂缝组与现今最大水平地应力方向一致,开启性较好;而北北东裂缝组与现今最大水平地应力交角相对较大,开启性相对较差。因为现今地应力的水平应力比值（σH/σh = 1.54）相对较小,在后期人工压裂中延长组泥页岩中的诱导裂缝更倾向形成复杂的裂缝网格系统,这样会使裂缝与储层之间获得最大的接触,从而更有利于提高产能。     

陕甘宁盆地遥感地质特征

通过对1∶25万TM卫星1、4、7波段假彩色合成影像图及其东西、南北、北东及北西方向上的线性增强图,1∶3.5万和1∶5万的航空照片的解译,结合野外实地考察,得到如下结果:a.陕甘宁盆地线性断裂构造发育,可划分出东西、南北、北西、北北西、北东、北北东等6组断裂。它们在空间上呈现出近等间距性、网络格局、断续成带的特点;在活动性上具有断距小、隐伏性、强度低的特点。它们明显地控制着现代地形、地貌及水系的发育,表明陕甘宁盆地内部新构造活动较为明显。b.盆地南北遥感影像有着明显的差异,反映两者地质构造的差异性,特别是盆地南部地区存在一个基本围限了盆地南部黄土高原地区的巨大的环形影像,其边缘影像十分清晰,中间区域穿插了略呈格状的北西-北北西,北东-北北东、东西及南北向的断裂。该环形影像是盆地中南部控边构造的多期活动、复合、叠加、联合而成的综合影像,并不反映盆地南部存在整体大规模的顺时针或逆时针的环型块体转动。     

Evolution of the lithosphere in the area of the Rhine Rift System

The Rhine Rift System (RRS) forms part of the European Cenozoic Rift System (ECRIS) and transects the Variscan Orogen, Permo-Carboniferous troughs and Late Permian to Mesozoic thermal sag basins. Crustal and lithospheric thicknesses range in the RRS area between 24–36 km and 50–120 km, respectively. We discuss processes controlling the transformation of the orogenically destabilised Variscan lithosphere into an end-Mesozoic stabilised cratonic lithosphere, as well as its renewed destabilisation during the Cenozoic development of ECRIS. By end-Westphalian times, the major sutures of the Variscan Orogen were associated with 45–60 km deep crustal roots. During the Stephanian-Early Permian, regional exhumation of the Variscides was controlled by their wrench deformation, detachment of subducted lithospheric slabs, asthenospheric upwelling and thermal thinning of the mantle-lithosphere. By late Early Permian times, when asthenospheric temperatures returned to ambient levels, lithospheric thicknesses ranged between 40 km and 80 km, whilst the thickness of the crust was reduced to 28–35 km in response to its regional erosional and local tectonic unroofing and the interaction of mantle-derived melts with its basal parts. Re-equilibration of the lithosphere-asthenosphere system governed the subsidence of Late Permian-Mesozoic thermal sag basins that covered much of the RRS area. By end-Cretaceous times, lithospheric thicknesses had increased to 100–120 km. Paleocene mantle plumes caused renewed thermal weakening of the lithosphere. Starting in the late Eocene, ECRIS evolved in the Pyrenean and Alpine foreland by passive rifting under a collision-related north-directed compressional stress field. Following end-Oligocene consolidation of the Pyrenees, west- and northwest-directed stresses originating in the Alps controlled further development of ECRIS. The RRS remained active until the Present, whilst the southern branch of ECRIS aborted in the early Miocene. Extensional strain across ECRIS amounts to some 7 km. Plume-related thermal thinning of the lithosphere underlies uplift of the Rhenish Massif and Massif Central. Lithospheric folding controlled uplift of the Vosges-Black Forest Arch.     

Numerical simulation of the fracture process in cutting heterogeneous brittle material

The process of cutting homogeneous soft material has been investigated extensively. However, there are not so many studies on cutting heterogeneous brittle material. In this paper, R‐T^2D (Rock and Tool interaction), based on the rock failure process analysis model, is developed to simulate the fracture process in cutting heterogeneous brittle material. The simulated results reproduce the process involved in the fragmentation of rock or rock‐like material under mechanical tools: the build‐up of the stress field, the formation of the crushed zone, surface chipping, and the formation of the crater and subsurface cracks. Due to the inclusion of heterogeneity in the model, some new features in cutting brittle material are revealed. Firstly, macroscopic cracks sprout at the two edges of the cutter in a tensile mode. Then with the tensile cracks releasing the confining pressure, the rock in the initially high confining pressure zone is compressed into failure and the crushed zone gradually comes into being. The cracked zone near the crushed zone is always available, which makes the boundary of the crushed zone vague. Some cracks propagate to form chipping cracks and some dip into the rock to form subsurface cracks. The chipping cracks are mainly driven to propagate in a tensile mode or a mixed tensile and shear mode, following curvilinear paths, and finally intersect with the free surface to form chips. According to the simulated results, some qualitative and quantitative analyses are performed. It is found that the back rake angle of the cutter has an important effect on the cutting efficiency. Although the quantitative analysis needs more research work, it is not difficult to see the promise that the numerical method holds. It can be utilized to improve our understanding of tool–rock interaction and rock failure mechanisms under the action of mechanical tools, which, in turn, will be useful in assisting the design of fragmentation equipment and fragmentation operations. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

鄂尔多斯地块西部构造研究中几个值得注意的问题

基于20世纪70—80年代对鄂尔多斯地块西部构造的研究,所得出的地块西部南北统一的东西挤压逆冲推覆构造模式,随着目前该区油气勘探实践发展及研究的逐渐深入,已经越来越难以解释地质实际问题。同时,地块西部统一的东西向运动及南北成带的构造模式值得认真推敲;该区不存在大规模的前陆盆地;关于横向构造带、南北分区以及南北运动模式等问题的相继提出,说明随着研究的不断深入,地块西部区域构造的复杂性和多样性值得重新审视。在分析总结该区构造特征及发育模式时需要不断地加强全面研究,并对原有的认识进行不断的补充、修订和完善。     

鄂尔多斯盆地二叠系下统太原组沉降差异特征分析

为了研究鄂尔多斯盆地二叠系下统太原组的沉降差异特征,统计出盆地内各井太原组在晚二叠纪、晚三叠纪、早侏罗纪、中侏罗纪、早白垩纪以及现今的上覆岩层厚度,编绘出太原组在该沉积期沉降差异图。根据所绘的沉降差异图,分析得出鄂尔多斯盆地在二叠系至中侏罗系盆地沉降特征相似,其大体是南低北高,西低东高的趋势,且随时间推移沉积深度不断增加,而至白垩纪沉积时,盆地沉降中心略向西偏移,盆地中部较低,向四周逐渐升高,而盆地北部较东部高。而已发现气藏的位置与太原组在不同地质时期的沉降中心位置有一定的关系。