Textural evidence for recent co-seismic circulation of fluids in the Nojima fault zone, Awaji island, Japan

The Hirabayashi borehole (Awaji Island, Japan) was drilled by the Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ) 1 year after the Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake (1995, M_JMA=7.2). This has enabled scientists to study the complete sequence of deformation across the active Nojima fault, from undeformed granodiorite to the fault core. In the fault core, different types of gouge and fractures have been observed and can be interpreted in terms of a complex history of faulting and fluid circulation. Above the fault core and within the hanging wall, compacted cataclasites and gouge are cut by fractures which show high apparent porosity and are filled by 5–50 μm euhedral and zoned siderite and ankerite crystals. These carbonate-filled fractures have been observed within a 5.5-m-wide zone above the fault, but are especially abundant in the vicinity (1 m) of the fault. The log-normal crystal size distributions of the siderite and ankerite suggest that they originated by decaying-rate nucleation accompanied by surface-controlled growth in a fluid saturated with respect to these carbonates. These carbonate-filled fractures are interpreted as the result of co-seismic hydraulic fracturing and upward circulation of fluids in the hanging wall of the fault, with the fast nucleation of carbonates attributed to a sudden fluid or CO₂ partial pressure drop due to fracturing. The fractures cut almost all visible structures at a thin section scale, although in some places, the original idiomorphic shape of carbonates is modified by a pressure-solution mechanism or the carbonate-filled fractures are cut and brecciated by very thin gouge zones; these features are attributed to low and high strain-rate mechanisms, respectively. The composition of the present-day groundwater is at near equilibrium or slightly oversaturated with respect to the siderite, calcite, dolomite and rhodochrosite. Taken together, this suggests that these fractures formed very late in the evolution of the fault zone, and may be induced by co-seismic hydraulic fracturing and circulation of a fluid with a similar composition to the present-day groundwater. They are therefore potentially related to recent earthquake activity (<1.2 Ma) on the Nojima fault.     

Time evolution of hydraulic and electrokinetic parameters around the Nojima fault, Japan, estimated by an electrokinetic method

The Nojima Fault Zone Probe was designed to study the properties and healing processes of the Nojima fault, which is the surface fault rupture of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake (M7.2) of 1995 (1995 Kobe earthquake). In this project, water injection experiments were conducted in a borehole of 1800 m depth at the Nojima fault. We set up electrodes around the borehole and observed self-potential variations to investigate the magnitude of electrokinetic and hydraulic parameters around the Nojima fault zone. In the 1997 experiment, self-potential variations were in the range of a few to about 20 mV across 320–450 m electrode dipoles with hydraulic pressure variations from 3.5 to 4 MPa. In the 2000 experiment, self-potential variations were in the range of a few to about 85 mV across 160–260 m electrode dipoles with the hydraulic pressure variations from 3 to 4.5 MPa. In the 2003 experiment, self-potential variations were in the range of a few to about 30 mV across 20–80 m electrode dipoles with hydraulic pressure of 4 MPa. These observed self-potential variations were explained well with an electrokinetic effect due to the underground flow of the injected water. From the observed results, we estimated that the ratio of hydraulic parameters (permeability, porosity, and tortuosity) to electrokinetic parameters (zeta potential and dielectric constant) decreased approximately 40% during eight years after the earthquake. This result suggests that the healing process around the fault zone progress.     

Stable Carbon Isotope Biogeochemistry and Anthropogenic Impacts on Karst Ground Water, Zunyi, Southwest China

Natural and anthropogenic impacts on karst ground water, Zunyi, Southwest China, are discussed using the stable isotope composition of dissolved inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon, together with carbon species contents and water chemistry. The waters can be mainly characterized as HCO₃–Ca type, HCO₃ · SO₄–Ca type, or HCO₃ · SO₄–Ca · Mg type, according to mass balance considerations. It is found that the average δ¹³C_DIC values of ground waters are higher in winter (low-flow season) than in summer (high-flow season). Lower contents of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and lower values of δ¹³C_DIC in summer than in winter, indicate that local rain events in summer and a longer residence time of water in winter play an important role in the evolution of ground water carbon in karst flow systems; therefore, soil CO₂ makes a larger contribution to the DIC in summer than in winter. The range of δ¹³C_DIC values indicate that dissolved inorganic carbon is mainly controlled by the rate of carbonate dissolution. The concentrations of dissolved organic carbon and particulate organic carbon in most ground water samples are lower than 2.0 mg C L⁻¹ and 0.5 mg C L⁻¹, respectively, but some waters have slightly higher contents of organic carbon. The waters with high organic carbon contents are generally located in the urban area where lower δ¹³C_DIC values suggest that urbanization has had an effect on the ground water biogeochemistry and might threaten the water quality.     

Hydrogeochemical and isotopic characterizations of an aquifer in the semi-arid region of the Mexican Highlands

This work addresses hydrogeochemical processes in shallow aquifers, represented by the Quaternary alluvial deposits, from a part of the semi-arid Mexican Highlands through the evaluations of physicochemical parameters as well as the δ¹⁸O and δ²H compositions of groundwater. Mifflin diagram separates the Na-bicarbonate, sulphate and mixed groundwater into one group showing interactions with volcanic lithology in the recharge zones and another group interacting with the evaporite rich sedimentary formation. In the Gibbs diagram, the samples with Cl^?/(Cl^? + HCO₃^?) < 0.4 showed higher influence of ion exchange and the samples with Cl^?/(Cl^? + HCO₃^?) > 0.4 showed higher effects of evaporation. All of them were oversaturated with carbonate minerals (i.e., calcite and dolomite) and unsaturated with evaporites (i.e., gypsum and halite). Evaporation (earlier stage) occurred before the water-rock interactions (later stage). Evolution occurs through three different routes such as up to 7.5‰ enrichment in δ¹⁸O caused by the infiltration with a certain delay and subsequently, the water-rock interaction became dominant. Ternary mixing models revealed dominant influence of local recharge (C₁) on the water system, contributing 70.4%. Water-rock interaction (C₃) with 18% and evaporation (C₂) with 11.6% had comparatively less influences. The presence of nitrate (2–60 mg/L) in the groundwater indicated variable degrees of anthropogenic pollution.     

ESR detection of seismic frictional heating events in the Nojima fault drill core samples, Japan

We have analyzed the Nojima fault NIED 1800 m drill core samples by ESR (Electron Spin Resonance) to detect seismic frictional heating events, especially during the 1995 Kobe Earthquake. Dark gray fault gouge with foliation > 10 cm away from the fault plane at about 1140 m in depth, which was produced by ancient fault movements, has a FMR (ferrimagnetic resonance) signal. Heating experiments show that this FMR signal is derived from ferrimagnetic trivalent ion oxides (γ-Fe₂O₃: maghemite) with imperfect crystallinity, which is produced by thermal dehydration of γ-FeOOH (lepidocrocite) or Fe(OH)₃ (limonite). The existence of the FMR signal means that dry heating such as frictional heating once occurred, and that the frictional heat temperature along the dark gray fault gouge may have risen to over 350 °C during ancient seismic fault slip. In order to detect frictional heating events in fault zones, the increase of the FMR signal and the color change of fault gouge into dark gray or black are important indexes. On the other hand, no FMR signal is detected from the fault gouges just on two fault planes at about 1140 m and 1300 m in depth, which are considered to be possible main fault planes in the 1995 Kobe Earthquake. These two fault planes may not have played an important role of fault slip in the Earthquake.     

Tectonic implications of damage zone-related fault-fracture networks revealed in drill core through the Nojima fault, Japan

1800 m of drill core through the Nojima fault zone, Japan, reveals subsidiary fault and fracture networks that developed in the fault zone that triggered the 1995 Ms 7.2 Kobe earthquake. The subsidiary fault zones contain a fault gouge of < 1 cm bounded by thin zones of foliated cataclasite or breccia. Fractures are filled with calcite veins, calcite-cemented breccias, clay, and iron-oxide and carbonate alternation of the granitic host rock. These features are typical of extensional fractures that form the conduit network for fluid flux close to a major fault zone. The zone of distributed deformation surrounding the main fault is 50 m in width, and the dip of the Nojima fault at > 1 km depth is 75°. The fault-fracture networks associated with the Nojima fault zone are coseismic and were filled with carbonate and fine-grained material during repeated seismic-related infiltration of the fault zone by carbonate-bearing subsurface water. This study shows that fault-related fracture networks plays an important role as fluid flow conduits within seismically active faults, and can change in character from zones of high permeability to low permeability due to cementation and/or pore collapse.     

Geochemical comparison between gas in fluid inclusions and gas produced from the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation,Sichuan Basin,SW China

Natural gas in the Xujiahe Formation of the Sichuan Basin is dominated by hydrocarbon (HC) gas, with 78–79% methane and 2–19% C₂₊ HC. Its dryness coefficient (C₁/C_1–5) is mostly < 0.95. The gas in fluid inclusions, which has low contents of CH₄ and heavy hydrocarbons (C₂₊) and higher contents of non-hydrocarbons (e.g. CO₂), is a typical wet gas produced by thermal degradation of kerogen. Gas produced from the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation (here denoted field gas) has light carbon isotope values for methane (δ¹³C₁: −45‰ to −36‰) and heavier values for ethane (δ¹³C₂: −30‰ to −25‰). The case is similar for gas in fluid inclusions, but δ¹³C₁ = −36‰ to −45‰ and δ¹³C₂ = −24.8‰ to −28.1‰, suggesting that the gas experienced weak isotopic fractionation due to migration and water washing. The field gas has δ¹³C_CO2 values of −15.6‰ to −5.6‰, while the gas in fluid inclusions has δ¹³C_CO2 values of −16.6‰ to −9‰, indicating its organic origin. Geochemical comparison shows that CO₂ captured in fluid inclusions mainly originated from source rock organic matter, with little contribution from abiogenic CO₂. Fluid inclusions originate in a relatively closed system without fluid exchange with the outside following the gas capture process, so that there is no isotopic fractionation. They thus present the original state of gas generated from the source rocks. These research results can provide a theoretical basis for gas generation, evolution, migration and accumulation in the basin.     

A conceptual model for water resources circulation patterns in Andarokh-Kardeh region (NE,Iran)

Andarokh-Kardeh region is located northeast of Iran and provides notable part of potable water of Mashhad, the second most populated city of Iran with over 3 million inhabitants. Stable isotopes (¹⁸O, ²H and ¹³C), hydrodynamic, and hydrochemical indicators have been applied to evaluate water resources quality comprehensively and to present a hydrogeological conceptual model for the Andarokh-Kardeh region. Hydrochemical studies indicate that chemical rock weathering and ion exchange are the main factors controlling the quality of water in the region, while atmospheric (precipitation) as well as anthropogenic sources have no notable effect. Stable isotopes (¹⁸O and ²H) studies in surface and groundwater samples demonstrate enriched values in Kardeh Dam Reservoir (KDR) due to evaporation and also demonstrate that the interaction between KDR and downstream groundwater resources is negligible. The δ¹³C isotope and DIC and DOC concentrations indicate role of carbonate mineral dissolution from Mozdooran Formation, atmospheric and soil CO₂ and also the domination of C3 vegetation coverage in the study region. The developed conceptual model for Andarokh-Kardeh demonstrates different hydrogeological conditions during wet and dry periods, and highlights the main process which affect hydrogeology of the region. Water quality studies and the developed conceptual model demonstrate the main factors controlling water quality and the main hydrogeological characteristic of Andarokh-Kardeh region which can be used by water resources scientists for the future water management programmes.     

Recharge mechanism and hydrochemistry evaluation of groundwater in the Nuaimeh area, Jordan, using environmental isotope techniques

The relationship between the stable isotopic and chemical composition of precipitation and groundwater was studied in the Nuaimeh area of the Ajloun Highlands in Jordan. The isotopic composition values of precipitation and groundwater are almost identical. The spatial variation of stable isotopes in precipitation is mainly due to the effect of seasonal temperature, altitude and amount. The groundwater reveals identical variation in isotopic composition to the precipitation due to direct recharge and the karstic nature of the outcropping Turonian aquifer. Tritium levels in wells are high and their content is similar to the weighted mean value of tritium content in precipitation, indicating local recharge and low residence time. The ¹⁴C activity in the tritiated groundwater is found to be about half of the ¹⁴C activity of precipitation in the region. A geochemical evolution through dissolution of carbonate by water–carbonate rock interactions reduced the atmospheric ¹⁴C activity from 114 to 61 pmc in the groundwater. A ¹⁴C of around 61 pmc and 7.6 TU values are considered the initial concentration for the recharge in the shallow carbonate aquifer in the Yarmouk Basin. The large fluctuation of water level in observation wells during the rainy season indicates the sensitivity and direct response of the aquifer to the recharge. The chemical composition of the groundwater (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–) gives emphasis to the short duration of water–rock interaction and indicates dissolution of the carbonate aquifer. The elevated concentrations of Cl^– and NO₃^– in groundwater are attributed to anthropogenic sources.

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Resumen Fue estudiada la relación entre la composición isotópica estable y la composición química, tanto de la precipitación como del agua subterránea, en el área de Nuaimeh en las montañas de Ajloun, en Jordania. Los valores de la composición isotópica de la precipitación y del agua subterránea son casi idénticos. La variación espacial de los isótopos estables en la precipitación, es debida principalmente al efecto de la temperatura estacional, a la altura y a la cantidad. El agua subterránea muestra una variación idéntica a la precipitación en cuanto a la composición isotópica, debido a la recarga directa y a la naturaleza cársica del acuífero Turoniano aflorante. Los niveles de tritio en los pozos son altos y su contenido es similar al valor medio ponderado del contenido de tritio en la precipitación, indicando una recarga local y un tiempo de residencia corto. Se ha encontrado que la actividad de ¹⁴C en el agua subterránea tritiada, es alrededor de la mitad de la actividad del ¹⁴C en la precipitación para la región. La evolución geoquímica ocurrida a partir de la disolución del carbonato, por las interacciones roca carbonatada–agua, redujeron la actividad atmosférica del ¹⁴C desde 114 en porcentaje de carbono moderno (pcm) hasta 61 pcm en el agua subterránea. Los valores del ¹⁴C cercanos a 61 pcm y de 7.6 unidades de tritio, se han considerado como las concentraciones originales para la recarga en el acuífero carbonatado somero de la Cuenca de Yarmouk. Una gran fluctuación en el nivel de agua de los pozos de observación, durante la estación lluviosa, indica la sensibilidad y la respuesta directa del acuífero frente a la recarga. La composición química del agua subterránea (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–), enfatiza en la corta duración de la interacción de agua–roca, e indica disolución del acuífero carbonatado. La concentración elevada de Cl^– y NO₃^– en el agua subterránea, se atribuye a fuentes antropogénicas.

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Résumé Dans la région montagneuse dAjloun de Jordanie on a étudié la relation entre la composition chimique et isotopique des précipitations et des eaux souterraines. La composition isotopique est presque identique dans précipitations et les eaux souterraines. La variation spatiale de la teneur en isotopes stables dans les précipitations est déterminée en principal par les variations saisonnière de la température, laltitude ainsi que par la quantité des précipitations. A cause de la recharge directe et de la nature karstique des affleurements de laquifère dage touronienne, les eaux souterraines présentent la même composition isotopique que les précipitations. La teneur en ³H mesurée dans les forages présente des valeurs élevées, proches de la valeur moyenne des précipitations, ce quindique une recharge locale et un temps court de résidence. On a déterminé pour lactivité de ¹⁴C une valeur proche de la moitié trouvée dans les précipitations. Lévolution géochimique par dissolution des carbonates pendant linteraction entre leau et les roche a diminué lactivité du ¹⁴C, de la valeur de 114 pcm en atmosphère à 61 pcm dans les eaux souterraines. Dans laquifère calcaire de surface de bassin Yarmouk, on a considéré comme de concentrations initiales, les valeurs de 61 pcm pour ¹⁴C et 7.2 UT pour ³H. Les grandes fluctuations des niveaux des eaux souterraines observées dans les forages pendant les saisons pluvieux montrent la sensibilité ainsi que la réponse directe de laquifère au recharge. La composition chimique des eaux souterraines (Ca²⁺–HCO₃^–) montre de plus le temps court de linteraction entre leau et la roche, en indiquant aussi la dissolution de laquifère calcaire. Les taux élevées de la concentration en Cl^– et NO₃^– dans les eaux souterraines ont été attribuées aux sources humaines.

     

Stable isotope (C,O, S) systematics of the mercury mineralization at Idrija,Slovenia: constraints on fluid source and alteration processes

The world-class Idrija mercury deposit (western Slovenia) is hosted by highly deformed Permocarboniferous to Middle Triassic sedimentary rocks within a complex tectonic structure at the transition between the External Dinarides and the Southern Alps. Concordant and discordant mineralization formed concomitant with Middle Triassic bimodal volcanism in an aborted rift. A multiple isotopic (C, O, S) investigation of host rocks and ore minerals was performed to put constraints on the source and composition of the fluid, and the hydrothermal alteration. The distributions of the ¹³C and ¹⁸O values of host and gangue carbonates are indicative of a fracture-controlled hydrothermal system, with locally high fluid-rock ratios. Quantitative modeling of the ¹³C and ¹⁸O covariation for host carbonates during temperature dependent fluid-rock interaction, and concomitant precipitation of void-filling dolomites points to a slightly acidic hydrothermal fluid (¹³C–4 and ¹⁸O+10), which most likely evolved during isotopic exchange with carbonates under low fluid/rock ratios. The ³⁴S values of hydrothermal and sedimentary sulfur minerals were used to re-evaluate the previously proposed magmatic and evaporitic sulfur sources for the mineralization, and to assess the importance of other possible sulfur sources such as the contemporaneous seawater sulfate, sedimentary pyrite, and organic sulfur compounds. The ³⁴S values of the sulfides show a large variation at deposit down to hand-specimen scale. They range for cinnabar and pyrite from –19.1 to +22.8, and from –22.4 to +59.6, respectively, suggesting mixing of sulfur from different sources. The peak of ³⁴S values of cinnabar and pyrite close to 0 is compatible with ore sulfur derived dominantly from a magmatic fluid and/or from hydrothermal leaching of basement rocks. The similar stratigraphic trends of the ³⁴S values of both cinnabar and pyrite suggest a minor contribution of sedimentary sulfur (pyrite and organic sulfur) to the ore formation. Some of the positive ³⁴S values are probably derived from thermochemical reduction of evaporitic and contemporaneous seawater sulfates.Editorial handling: P. Lattanzi     

Os, Nd, and Sr isotopic and chemical compositions of ultramafic xenoliths from Kurose, SW Japan: Implications for contribution of slab-derived material to wedge mantle

We examined seven ultramafic xenoliths from 1~3 Ma alkali olivine basalt reefs near the Eurasian continent and one sample of the host alkali basalt to identify the mantle wedge material and to constrain the origin and evolution of mantle beneath SW Japan. Six xenoliths are from Kurose and one xenolith is from Takashima, northern part of the Kyushu islands, SW Japan. The Sr and Nd isotopic ratios vary from 0.70416 to 0.70773 and from 0.51228 to 0.51283, respectively. The Kurose and Takashima xenoliths have higher Sr isotopic ratios and lower Nd isotopic ratios than those of the peridotite xenoliths from the other arc settings such as Simcoe and NE Japan.

The Kurose xenoliths have less radiogenic Os isotopic ratios (¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os = 0.123–0.129) than the primitive upper mantle (PUM) estimate and limited variation compared to the other arc xenoliths. Their Os isotope compositions are rather similar to the ultramafic xenoliths from NE and east China. In addition, the samples of the Kurose and Takashima xenoliths plot along a mixing line between ultramafic xenoliths from SE and NE China and a slab component in Sr–Nd–Os isotopic space. Our results suggest that fragments of continental lithospheric mantle from the China craton may exist beneath Kurose and Takashima after the Sea of Japan expansion when the Japanese islands were rifted away from the Eurasian continent during Miocene. Later magmatism due to subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the SW Japan arc around 15 Ma ago may have introduced fluids or melts derived from slab component, interpreted to be oceanic sediments rather than altered oceanic crust, that possibly modified the original composition of the lithospheric mantle sampled by the peridotite xenoliths from Kurose and Takashima.     

桂林硝盐洞滴水水文和水化学动态变化特征

为认识裸露型岩溶包气带洞穴水文水化学动态变化特征,以桂林硝盐洞滴水为例,选取桂林硝盐洞3处滴水,对滴速、电导率、pH值、Ca2+、Mg2+、Sr2+进行监测,结果显示:(1)岩溶洞穴滴水的离子浓度与温度降水关系密切,高温多雨时节岩溶作用加快,洞穴滴水中Ca2+、Mg2+含量升高,同时强降雨会导致离子浓度产生很大波动;(2)滴水化学性质受到土壤、基岩顶板厚度、滴水量等的影响,土壤层越厚,滴水中Ca2+含量越高;(3)受“慢速补给”的滴水点,其滴水量与离子浓度呈正相关性,而受“快速补给”的滴水点,其滴水量与离子浓度呈负相关性;同时接受两种方式补给的滴水点,其滴水量和离子浓度变化剧烈,且呈良好的正相关性。      

Nonsulfide and sulfide-rich zinc mineralizations in the Vazante, Ambrósia and Fagundes deposits, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Mass balance and stable isotope characteristics of the hydrothermal alterations

The Vazante Group hosts the Vazante nonsulfide zinc deposit, which comprises high-grade zinc silicate ore (ZnSiO₄), and late-diagenetic to epigenetic carbonate-hosted sulfide-rich zinc deposits (e.g. Morro Agudo, Fagundes, and Ambrósia). In the sulfide-rich deposits, hydrothermal alteration involving silicification and dolomitization was related with ground preparation of favorable zones for fluid migration (e.g. Fagundes) or with direct interaction with the metalliferous fluid (e.g. Ambrósia). At Vazante, hydrothermal alteration resulted in silicification and dolomite, siderite, jasper, hematite, and chlorite formation. These processes were accompanied by strong relative gains of SiO₂, Fe₂O_3(T), Rb, Sb, V, U, and La, which are typically associated with the nonsulfide zinc mineralization. All sulfide-rich zinc ores in the district display a similar geochemical signature suggesting a common metal source from the underlying sedimentary sequences.Oxygen and carbon isotope compositions of hydrothermally altered rocks reveal a remarkable alteration halo at the Vazante deposit, which is not a notable feature in the sulfide-rich deposits. This pattern could be attributed to fluid mixing processes involving the metalliferous fluid and channelized meteoric water, which may control the precipitation of the Vazante nonsulfide ore. Sulfide deposition resulted from fluid–rock interaction processes and mixing between the ascending metalliferous fluids and sulfur-rich tectonic brines derived from reduced shale units.     

Fracture-zone conditions on a recently active fault: insights from mineralogical and geochemical analyses of the Hirabayashi NIED drill core on the Nojima fault, southwest Japan, which ruptured in the 1995 Kobe earthquake

An 1800-m-deep borehole into the Nojima fault zone was drilled at Nojima-Hirabayashi, Japan, after the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake. Three possible fracture zones were detected at depths of about 1140, 1300, and 1800 m. To assess these fracture zones in this recently active fault, we analyzed the distributions of fault rocks, minerals, and chemical elements in these zones. The central fault plane in the shallowest fracture zone was identified by foliated blue-gray gouge at a depth of 1140 m. The degree of fracturing was evidently greater in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Minerals detected in this zone were quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and biotite, as in the parent rock (granodiorite), and also kaolinite, smectite, laumontite, stilbite, calcite, ankerite, and siderite, which are related to hydrothermal alteration. Biotite was absent in both the hanging wall and footwall across the central fault plane, but it was absent over a greater distance from the central fault plane in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Major element compositions across this zone suggested that hydrothermal alteration minerals such as kaolinite and smectite occurred across the central fault plane for a greater distance in the hanging wall than in the footwall. Similarly, H₂O+ and CO₂ had higher concentrations in the hanging wall than in the footwall. This asymmetrical distribution pattern is probably due to the greater degree of wall–rock fracturing and associated alteration in the hanging wall. We attributed the characteristics of this zone to fault activity and fluid–rock interactions. We analyzed the other fracture zones along this fault in the same way. In the fracture zone at about 1300 m depth, we detected the same kinds of hydrothermal alteration minerals as in the shallower zone, but they were in fewer samples. We detected relatively little H₂O+ and CO₂, and little evidence for movement of the major chemical elements, indicating little past fluid–rock interaction. In the fracture zone at about 1800 m depth, H₂O+ and CO₂ were very enriched throughout the interval, as in the fracture zone at about 1140 m depth. However, smectite was absent and chlorite was present, indicating the occurrence of chloritization, which requires a temperature of more than 200 °C. Only smectite can form under the present conditions in these fracture zones. The chloritization probably occurred in the past when the fracture zone was deeper than it is now. These observations suggest that among the three fracture zones, that at about 1140 m depth was the most activated at the time of the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake.     

Stable and clumped isotopes in desert carbonate spring and lake deposits reveal palaeohydrology: A case study of the Lower Jurassic Navajo Sandstone,south‐western USA

Carbon, oxygen and clumped isotope (Δ₄₇) values were measured from lacustrine and tufa (spring)‐mound carbonate deposits in the Lower Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of southern Utah and northern Arizona in order to understand the palaeohydrology. These carbonate deposits are enriched in both ¹⁸O and ¹³C across the basin from east to west; neither isotope is strongly sensitive to the carbonate facies. However, ¹⁸O is enriched in lake carbonate deposits compared to the associated spring mounds. This is consistent with evaporation of the spring waters as they exited the mounds and were retained in interdune lakes. Clumped isotopes (Δ₄₇) exhibit minor systematic differences between lake and tufa‐mound temperatures, suggesting that the rate of carbonate formation under ambient conditions was moderate. These clumped isotope values imply palaeotemperature elevated beyond reasonable surface temperatures (54 to 86°C), which indicates limited bond reordering at estimated burial depths of ca 4 to 5 km, consistent with independent estimates of sediment thickness and burial depth gradients across the basin. Although clumped isotopes do not provide surface temperature information in this case, they still provide useful burial information and support interpretations of the evolution of groundwater locally. The findings of this study significantly extend the utility of combining stable isotope and clumped isotope methods into aeolian environments.     

Hydrogeochemical modeling of the water seepages through Tannur Dam,southern Jordan

This paper reveals the geochemical processes of dissolution, precipitation and cation exchange that took place during water–rock interaction between water seepages through the Tannur Dam. The Schoeller diagram indicates that there are three major water types originating during water–rock interaction. The first water type is characterized by low salinity that ranges from 1,300 to 2,800 µs/cm, which represents the reservoir water and the water in the right side of the central gallery. The second water type is in the left side of the central gallery, which exhibits medium salinity that reaches about 4,400 µs/cm. The third water type is characterized by very high salinity that reaches a value of around 8,500 µs/cm and represents the water in the right existing adit. The increase of salinity can be explained due to the dissolution of carbonate and sulfate minerals that form the matrix of the foundation and the abutment rocks, and the dissolution of the grout curtain, which is composed of cement and bentonite. Hydrogeochemical modeling, using a computer code PHREEQC, was used to obtain the saturation indices of specific mineral phases, which might be related to interaction with water seepages, and to identify the chemical species of the dissolved ions. The thermodynamic calculations indicate that most of the water samples were undersaturated with respect to gypsum, anhydrite and halite, and were saturated and/or supersaturated with respect to calcite and dolomite. Ca(HCO₃)₂ is the primary water type, as a result of dissolution of carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite prevailing at the dam site. However, cation-exchange processes are responsible for the formation of the Na₂SO₄ water type from the CaSO₄ type that formed due to the dissolution of gypsum.     

Three–Dimensional Isotopic Characteristics of Crystalline Limestone around the Sakonishi Zn Ore Bodies in the Kamioka Mining District, Japan

Abstract: Predominant Zn-rich ore bodies were found to a deep part of the Sakonishi area in the Kamioka mining district, Japan. The ore mineralization was recognized at 230 to 300m above sea level in the Sakonishi area. Since crystalline limestone is broadly distributed over the area, and the variation in isotopic composition is easily detected, the isotopic prospecting should be powerful in surveying of the extent of the ore bodies and the related hydrothermal system. Although isotopic anomalies have been extracted two-dimensionally so far, three-dimensional information is possibly more powerful. In this paper, Zn-rich ore bodies in the Sakonishi area are treated as hydrothermal ore deposits, and the importance of the activity of hydrothermal fluids during mineralization is emphasized. Oxygen and carbon isotopic ‘iso–surfaces’ are three-dimensionally calculated for the Sakonishi area. The δ¹⁸O values of crystalline limestone from the surface and from the drill holes range from +8. 1 to +21. 1% and from –2. 7 to +20. 4%, respectively. The δ¹³C values of crystalline limestone from the surface and from the drill holes range from –1. 0 to +5. 3% and from –7. 7 to +4. 6%, respectively. The oxygen and carbon iso-topic ratios at the mineralization level are extremely low, but there are exceptions as to carbon isotopes. The oxygen isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone may decrease by isotopic exchange reaction with a hydrothermal fluid, while the carbon isotopic ratios slightly change. Since the precipitated calcite from a hydrothermal fluid has low carbon isotopic ratio and various oxygen isotopic ratio depending on the formation temperature, the bulk sample of crystalline limestone containing the precipitated calcite has oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of relatively low values accordingly. Thus the decrease mechanism for carbon isotopic ratio of crystalline limestone is different from that for oxygen isotopic ratio. Samples with the carbon isotopic ratio of –4 to –8% are considered to be crystallized from hydrothermal fluids. Since the oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone at the ore mineralization level are low, the ore bodies are considered to have formed by a prominent hydrothermal activity. Thus oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone can be used as an indicator of the related hydrothermal activity. The alteration such as chloritization is intense near fractures in the Sakonishi area, showing that the hydrothermal system is controlled by a fracture system. It is assumed that the decreased isotopic ratios indicate the high degree of reactivity with hydrothermal fluids, and the depleted zone in oxygen and carbon isotopes may correspond to the conduit of the hydrothermal fluids.     

Fluid inclusion and stable isotope (O, H, C, and S) constraints on the genesis of the Serrinha gold deposit, Gurupi Belt, northern Brazil

The Serrinha gold deposit of the Gurupi Belt, northern Brazil, belongs to the class of orogenic gold deposits. The deposit is hosted in highly strained graphitic schist belonging to a Paleoproterozoic (∼2,160 Ma) metavolcano-sedimentary sequence. The ore-zones are up to 11 m thick, parallel to the regional NW–SE schistosity, and characterized by quartz-carbonate-sulfide veinlets and minor disseminations. Textural and structural data indicate that mineralization was syn- to late-tectonic and postmetamorphic. Fluid inclusion studies identified early CO₂ (CH₄-N₂) and CO₂ (CH₄-N₂)-H₂O-NaCl inclusions that show highly variable phase ratios, CO₂ homogenization, and total homogenization temperatures both to liquid and vapor, interpreted as the product of fluid immiscibility under fluctuating pressure conditions, more or less associated with postentrapment modifications. The ore-bearing fluid typically has 18–33mol% of CO₂, up to 4mol% of N₂, and less than 2mol% of CH₄ and displays moderate to high densities with salinity around 4.5wt% NaCl equiv. Mineralization occurred around 310 to 335°C and 1.3 to 3.0 kbar, based on fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures and oxygen isotope thermometry with estimated oxygen fugacity indicating relatively reduced conditions. Stable isotope data on quartz, carbonate, and fluid inclusions suggest that veins formed from fluids with δ¹⁸O_H2O and δD_H2O (310–335°C) values of +6.2 to +8.4‰ and −19 to −80‰, respectively, which might be metamorphic and/or magmatic and/or mantle-derived. The carbon isotope composition (δ¹³C) varies from −14.2 to −15.7‰ in carbonates; it is −17.6‰ in fluid inclusion CO₂ and −23.6‰ in graphite from the host rock. The δ³⁴S values of pyrite are −2.6 to −7.9‰. The strongly to moderately negative carbon isotope composition of the carbonates and inclusion fluid CO₂ reflects variable contribution of organic carbon to an originally heavier fluid (magmatic, metamorphic, or mantle-derived) at the site of deposition and sulfur isotopes indicate some oxidation of the originally reduced fluid. The deposition of gold is interpreted to have occurred mainly in response to phase separation and fluid-rock interactions such as CO₂ removal and desulfidation reactions that provoked variations in the fluid pH and redox conditions.     

小秦岭东桐峪金矿床稳定同位素地球化学及成矿物质来源

东桐峪金矿位于小秦岭金矿田中西部,矿体受韧性剪切构造带控制。为了确定矿床成矿流体和成矿金属来源,笔者系统研究了该矿床的3个成矿阶段S、C、H、O 同位素组成特征。结果显示12件石英中包裹体水的δDH2O变化范围为-78.1‰~-42.2‰;12件石英样品中第Ⅰ阶段δ18OH2O值为9.76‰~13.16‰;Ⅱ阶段δ18OH2O值为6.30‰~8.10‰;Ⅲ阶段δ18OH2O值为6.76‰~7.26‰。流体包裹体中CO2的δ13C值为-1.8‰~-2.5‰。16件硫化物δ34S值为-3.7‰~+8.2‰。H、O、C同位素组成特点表明,水兼有变质水和岩浆水的特征,是太华群基底深熔作用蒸汽相的产物,其运动与长期的糜棱岩带活动有关。成矿流体中C主要来自地幔。S同位素组成特征表明矿石中S来自太华群或深部重熔的岩浆岩。