Changes of Accumulated Temperature, Growing Season andPrecipitation in the North China Plain from 1961 to 2009

Using the high-quality observed meteorological data,changes of the thermal conditions and precipitation over the North China Plain from 1961 to 2009 were examined.Trends of accumulated temperature and negative temperature,growing season duration,as well as seasonal and annual rainfalls at 48 stations were analyzed.The results show that the accumulated temperature increased significantly by 348.5℃ day due to global warming during 1961 2009 while the absolute accumulated negative temperature decreased apparently by 175.3℃ day.The start of growing season displayed a significant negative trend of-14.3 days during 1961-2009,but the end of growing season delayed insignificantly by 6.7 days.As a result,the length of growing sea.son increased by 21.0 days.The annual and autumn rainfalls decreased slightly while summer rainfall and summer rainy days decreased significantly.In contrast,spring rainfall increased slightly without significant trends.All the results indicate that the thermal conditions were improved to benefit the crop growth over the North China Plain during 1961-2009,and the decreasing annual and summer rainfalls had no direct negative impact on the crop growth.But the decreasing summer rainfall was likely to influence the water resources in North China,especially the underground water,reservoir water,as well as river runoff,which would have influenced the irrigation of agriculture.     

Spatially explicit modelling of the impact of climate changes on pasture production in the North Island,New Zealand

To assess the potential impact of climate changes on pasture production in the North Island, New Zealand, eight climate scenarios of increased temperature and increased (or decreased) rainfall were investigated by integrating a polynomial regression model for pasture production with a Geographic Information System (GIS). The results indicated that the climate change scenarios assuming an increase in temperature by 1–2°C and a rainfall change by −20 to +20% would have a very significant impact on pasture production with a predicted pasture production variation from −46.2 to +51.9% compared with the normal climate from 1961–1990. Increased temperature would generally have a positive effect on pasture production in the south and southeast of the North Island, and increased rainfall would have a positive effect in the central, south and southeast of the North Island and a negative effect in the north of the North Island. The interaction of decreased rainfall and increased temperature would have a negative impact for the whole North Island except some central areas with high rainfall. Relevant management practices for coping with potential climate change are discussed.     

Long-term rainfall characteristics in the Mzingwane catchment of south-western Zimbabwe

Rainfall characteristics during the annual rainy season are explored for the Mzingwane catchment of south-western Zimbabwe, for both historic period (1886–1906) and more recent times (1950–2015), based on available daily and monthly precipitation series. Annual and seasonal rainfall trends are determined using the modified Mann-Kendall test, magnitude of trends test and Sen’s slope estimator. Rainfall variability is quantified using the coefficient of variation (CV), precipitation concentration index (PCI) and standard precipitation index (SPI). Results suggest that contemporary mean annual rainfall may not have changed from that measured during the historic period of 1886–1906. However, the number of rainy days (≥ 1 mm) has decreased by 34%, thus suggesting much more concentrated and increased rainfall intensity. A notable shift in both the onset and cessation dates of the rainy season is recorded, particularly during the twenty-first century, which has resulted in a significantly reduced (p < 0.05) length of the rainy season. The combination of a reduced number of rainy days (≥ 1 mm) and a shortened rainy season suggests that long intra-season dry spells have become more common through time and have considerable negative consequences for agriculture and wetland ecosystem in the region. In addition, high spatio-temporal rainfall variability and seasonal PCI values indicate strong seasonality in the rainy season. Based on the SPI results, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) strongly influences rainfall variability. The results further suggest high uncertainty in rain season characteristics, which requires effective planning for water needs.     

中国雨季的气候学特征

利用中国740站气候平均逐候降雨量对中国的主雨季进行定义,并对雨季（包括主雨季,春雨和秋雨）的气候学特征进行了讨论。结果表明:全国主雨季最早爆发于华南中部,最晚结束于华西地区。主雨季能持续4到14候不等,雨量占年总降水的30%～60%。主雨季在中国东部为季风雨季,自南向北推进;在西部受西风带影响,北方略早于南方, 且局地性强。中国雨季具有明显的区域性和阶段性特征。中国气候的夏季降水时间序列主要反映了季节循环特征, 但气候季节内振荡（CISO）对东部雨季的持续和推进具有明显的调制作用,其中长江中下游及其以南地区以30～60天周期为主。     

华北冬小麦-夏玉米两熟区干旱特征分析

研究华北冬小麦一夏玉米主要生长季的干旱时空特征,可为全球气候变暖背景下制定抗旱减灾对策提供理论依据。利用华北5省（市）64个气象台站1961-2010年逐日降水资料,以降水负距平或降水量表征的干旱指标,通过经验正交分解法提取了冬小麦、夏玉米全生育期和关键生长阶段的特征向量和时间系数,分析了干旱频率、站次比及干旱强度的变化特征,并通过构建冬小麦-夏玉米轮作期综合干旱指数,探讨了华北地区农业干旱的总体状况。结果表明：EOF分解的前4个模态提取了60％以上作物干旱的主要时空分布信息,冬小麦主要生长季收敛效果优于夏玉米;冬小麦全生育期、苗期及拔节-抽穗期干旱的高强度中心主要分布在冀中南、豫北及鲁西北地区,而灌浆-成熟期干旱则以豫东为中心;夏玉米全生育期干旱的高强度中心主要位于冀南和鲁北地区,初夏旱以冀北大部为高强度区,而卡脖旱以豫西和鲁南为高强度区。从时间系数和区域干旱强度及站次比的时间变化趋势看,冬小麦全生育期干旱、灌浆-成熟期干旱及夏玉米初夏旱、卡脖旱均表现为递减趋势,但未通过显著性检验,而冬小麦播种期、拔节-抽穗期干旱,以及夏玉米全生育期干旱为不显著的递增趋势。整个冬小麦-夏玉米轮作期干旱威胁较高的地区主要位于京津局部、冀中南、豫北和鲁北等地区。     

Differences and sensitivities in potential hydrologic impact of climate change to regional-scale Athabasca and Fraser River basins of the leeward and windward sides of the Canadian Rocky Mountains respectively

Sensitivities to the potential impact of Climate Change on the water resources of the Athabasca River Basin (ARB) and Fraser River Basin (FRB) were investigated. The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) of IPCC projected by seven general circulation models (GCM), namely, Japan’s CCSRNIES, Canada’s CGCM2, Australia’s CSIROMk2b, Germany’s ECHAM4, the USA’s GFDLR30, the UK’s HadCM3, and the USA’s NCARPCM, driven under four SRES climate scenarios (A1FI, A2, B1, and B2) over three 30-year time periods (2010–2039, 2040–2069, 2070–2100) were used in these studies. The change fields over these three 30-year time periods are assessed with respect to the 1961–1990, 30-year climate normal and based on the 1961–1990 European Community Mid-Weather Forecast (ECMWF) re-analysis data (ERA-40), which were adjusted with respect to the higher resolution GEM forecast archive of Environment Canada, and used to drive the Modified ISBA (MISBA) of Kerkhoven and Gan (Adv Water Resour 29(6):808–826, 2006). In the ARB, the shortened snowfall season and increased sublimation together lead to a decline in the spring snowpack, and mean annual flows are expected to decline with the runoff coefficient dropping by about 8% per °C rise in temperature. Although the wettest scenarios predict mild increases in annual runoff in the first half of the century, all GCM and emission combinations predict large declines by the end of the twenty-first century with an average change in the annual runoff, mean maximum annual flow and mean minimum annual flow of −21%, −4.4%, and −41%, respectively. The climate scenarios in the FRB present a less clear picture of streamflows in the twenty-first century. All 18 GCM projections suggest mean annual flows in the FRB should change by ±10% with eight projections suggesting increases and 10 projecting decreases in the mean annual flow. This stark contrast with the ARB results is due to the FRB’s much milder climate. Therefore under SRES scenarios, much of the FRB is projected to become warmer than 0°C for most of the calendar year, resulting in a decline in FRB’s characteristic snow fed annual hydrograph response, which also results in a large decline in the average maximum flow rate. Generalized equations relating mean annual runoff, mean annual minimum flows, and mean annual maximum flows to changes in rainfall, snowfall, winter temperature, and summer temperature show that flow rates in both basins are more sensitive to changes in winter than summer temperature.     

Empirical Orthogonal Function Analysis of Daily Rainfall in the Upper Reaches of the Huai River Basin, China

Summary  The design and operation of hydro-structures for flood control and water conservation bring a need for improved characterization of precipitation patterns. A 73 000 km² study area in East Central China is situated in the East Asian monsoon region and experiences a strong seasonality in the rainfall regime. The characteristics of daily rainfall from 230 gauges during 1967–1986 were investigated for four periods in the summer monsoon season using empirical orthogonal function analysis (EOF) and extended empirical orthogonal function analysis (EEOF). The EOF analysis showed that for all four periods most of the variance was explained by an elongated spatial rainfall pattern. The pattern varied in direction, from roughly west-east to southwest-northeast, in the different periods. The zonally oriented patterns were interpreted as being caused by the stationary Mei-Yu front and the southwest-northeast patterns interpreted as cold fronts in cyclones that were developing over the study area. The latitude of the rain belt described by the first mode moved slightly northward with the advance of the East Asian monsoon from the first period, 9–22 June, to the third period, 23 July–5 August, and then withdrew southward again in accordance with the known seasonal movement of the Mei-Yu front. The EEOF analysis was used to show the development of the rainfall area over sequences of three days. During all four periods rainfall intensified on the second day, compared to the first and third days. During the first and last periods, 9–22 June and 5 August–30 September, respectively, there appeared to be little movement in the rainfall. During the second and third periods, the patterns were interpreted as a cold front in a developing cyclone. The results show the connection between the temporal variation in rainfall intensity and the temporal succession of spatial patterns over three day periods and should be used in the construction of design rainfalls for the study area. Received February 10, 1998 Revised June 23, 1998     

Biases in AMIP model simulations of the east China monsoon system

 AMIP model simulations of the east China (5–50°N; 105–122°E) monsoon system are analyzed to study coherent relationships between rainfall and wind annual cycle biases. A comparison with observed interannual variability patterns is carried out to identify the physical processes that explain the biases. The analyses show that poleward displacement of the simulated east Asian jet stream causes the ascending branch of the jet-induced transverse circulation to move north and, as a consequence, produces negative (positive) rainfall biases occur in central (northeast) China. The model simulations show decreased southwesterly flow and ITCZ rainfall over the South China Sea when weaker (versus observations) summer Hadley and Walker circulations are present. This results from diminished model tropical disturbance activity, and highlights the importance of air-sea interactions. In addition, during October–January, intensified model low-level easterlies enhance moisture transport and produce positive local rainfall biases over central and northeast China. Biases in the east China monsoon system are concurrently reflected in the planetary circulation. Enhanced northeast China rainfall results from increased surface pressure over the North Pacific and an amplified zonal pressure gradient along the east China coast. This bias pattern is associated with differences in model representations of topography. On the other hand, the South China Sea experiences an extensive elongated meridional rainfall bias dipole structure that straddles the equator. This is accompanied by a baroclinic vertical pattern over the tropics as well as a barotropic wave train that extends from Australia to the Antarctic, where the teleconnection is likely a direct atmospheric response to tropical convective heating. Received: 20 June 2000 / Accepted: 17 September 2000     

全球变暖背景下亚非典型干旱区降水变化及其与水汽输送的关系研究

分析比较了中蒙(35°N~50°N,75°E~105°E)、中亚(28°N~50°N,50°E~67°E)和北非(15°N~32°N,17°W~32°E)三个典型干旱区水汽输送特征的异同,及其1961~2010年间的降水时空变化,分析了水汽来源和输送变化及其可能原因。结果显示,由于受不同的气候系统影响,中蒙、北非和中亚干旱区的降水在年内变化上有着显著不同。中蒙和北非干旱区降水呈现夏季风降水的特征;而中亚干旱区降水则为更多受到冬季风的影响。1961~2010年,随着全球气温上升,中蒙干旱区冬季纬向水汽输送增加而经向输送减少,总水汽输送增加;中亚干旱区冬季纬向输送减少而经向增加,总水汽输送减少;北非干旱区冬季纬向输送增加而经向输送减少,总水汽输送增加。夏季中蒙和北非干旱区经向、纬向输送均减小,中亚干旱区夏季纬向输送减少而经向减少,总输送增加。相应的,中蒙干旱区年、冬季和夏季降水分别以4.2、1.3和1.0 mm/10 a的趋势增加;而中亚干旱区冬季(1.2 mm/10 a)和夏季(0.1 mm/10 a)降水增加,年降水则呈减少趋势(-0.8 mm/10 a);北非干旱区年降水和夏季降水分别以0.5 mm/10 a和0.1 mm/10 a的速率增加。冬季中蒙干旱区主要水汽来源是水汽经向输送,而中亚干旱区水汽主要为纬向输送,经纬向水汽均为净输出是北非干旱区降水极少的主要原因,平均总水汽输送量约为-9.48×104 kg/s。冬季低纬度和高纬度环流通过定常波影响干旱区冬季降水。中蒙和中亚干旱区冬季降水主要受西太平洋到印度洋由南向北的波列影响,北非干旱区冬季降水主要和北大西洋上空由北到南的波列相联系。各干旱区的降水对海温变化有着不同的响应:中蒙干旱区冬季降水与冬季太平洋西海岸和印度洋海温呈显著正相关,夏季与海温相关不显著;中亚干旱区与地中海和阿拉伯海温相关,且与阿拉伯海温为正相关。     

华北平原不同生长发育期作物长势对气候因子的响应研究

利用卫星遥感归一化植被指数(NDVI)时间序列数据和站点气象数据,从农作物生长发育过程的角度,分析了1981~2008年华北平原农田在12个生长发育期(冬小麦8个、夏玉米4个)对降水和温度不同的响应特征。研究区农田植被指数对降水响应的滞后性强于对温度的滞后性,其中对降水最为敏感的是前1和前2个生长发育期,对温度最为敏感的是同期和前1个生长发育期。不同种类作物在不同时期对气候因子响应不同:冬小麦发育中后期、夏玉米发育中期,绝大多数站点植被指数与降水呈正相关;冬小麦生长发育前中期植被指数与温度呈显著甚至极显著正相关。冬小麦出苗期温度、返青期温度和返青期降水分别与不同时期植被指数显著相关,出苗期和返青期为研究区农田长势对气候因子响应的敏感期。     

Geographic Variation in Growing Season Rainfall during three Decades in Nigeria Using Principal Component and Cluster Analyses

Summary  Reports of changes in the seasonal and annual rainfall in Nigeria suggests that a more detailed analyses of the geographic extent of these changes and of their impact on agriculture could be of value. Variation in the growing season (April to September) rainfall from stations across Nigeria was analysed over the 30-yr period, 1960–90. Regression analyses were used to examine long-term trends. Principal component and cluster analyses were used to group stations with similar trends in standardised seasonal rainfall. Mean accumulated standardised seasonal rainfall were used to examine short- and medium-term trends for each of the groups identified. Significant (P ≤ 0.05) decreases in rainy season rainfall were found at 8 stations mostly in the Guinea and arid/semi-arid savannas of northern Nigeria, whereas no station showed significant increases. Examination of the monthly (April through September) rainfall showed that only three – Kano, Sokoto and Potiskum in the arid/semi-arid savanna – of the twenty-three stations used in the analysis had declining rainfall trends for each of the months April to September and subsequently declining seasonal rainfall trends. However, 12 to 15 stations had consistently declining rainfall trends in atleast some but not all the growing season months. However, a similar pattern was not the case in terms of increasing rainfall trends, where only one to three stations had consistently increasing rainfall trends in some but not all of the months from April to September. Stations that showed increasing rainfall trends were in the southern parts of Nigeria. Six groups with similar patterns in standardised seasonal rainfall were identified by Principal Component and Cluster analyses. For most of the groups, the period from 1967 to 1973 was that of consistently below average seasonal rainfall. However, the timing and extent of the decline varied with location. Common to stations in four of the six groups was a negative trend in seasonal rainfall for the period considered. The geographic variation in seasonal rainfall trends has tremendous agricultural significance since there are indications that the reliability of the season is decreasing from the humid forest zone with positive seasonal trends to the arid/semi-arid savanna with significant negative seasonal trends. Received June 24, 1998 Revised December 18, 1998     

Quantifying the effects of climate trends in the past 43 years (1961–2003) on crop growth and water demand in the North China Plain

This paper explores changes in climatic variables, including solar radiation, rainfall, fraction of diffuse radiation (FDR) and temperature, during wheat season (October to May) and maize season (June to September) from 1961 to 2003 at four sites in the North China Plain (NCP), and then evaluates the effects of these changes on crop growth processes, productivity and water demand by using the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator. A significant decline in radiation and rainfall was detected during the 43 years, while both temperature and FDR exhibit an increasing trend in both wheat and maize seasons. The average trend of each climatic variable for each crop season from the four sites is that radiation decreased by 13.2 and 6.2 MJ m^?2 a^?1, precipitation decreased by 0.1 and 1.8 mm a^?1, minimum temperature increased by 0.05 and 0.02°C a^?1, maximum temperature increased by 0.03 and 0.01°C a^?1, FDR increased by 0.21 and 0.38% a^?1 during wheat and maize season, respectively. Simulated crop water demand and potential yield was significantly decreased because of the declining trend in solar radiation. On average, crop water demand was decreased by 2.3 mm a^?1 for wheat and 1.8 mm a^?1 for maize if changes in crop variety were not considered. Simulated potential crop yields under fully irrigated condition declined about 45.3 kg ha^?1 a^?1 for wheat and 51.4 kg ha^?1 a^?1 for maize at the northern sites, Beijing and Tianjin. They had no significant changes in the southern sites, Jinan and Zhengzhou. Irrigation, fertilization development and crop variety improvement are main factors to contribute to the increase in actual crop yield for the wheat–maize double cropping system, contrasted to the decline in the potential crop yield. Further research on how the improvement in crop varieties and management practices can counteract the impact of climatic change may provide insight into the future sustainability of wheat–maize double crop rotations in the NCP.     

华北汛期的起讫及其气候学分析

基于对汛期的理解和认识, 利用Samel等人设计的半客观统计分析方法、Mann-Kendall突变分析、滑动t检验等方法, 通过分析和研究1957—2006年华北台站的日降水资料, 确定了华北汛期起讫的日期。结果表明:华北汛期始于6月30日, 止于8月18日, 持续期为50d。华北汛期的起讫日期、持续天数以及空汛发生的频次, 具有鲜明的地域特征:冀北山地汛期开始最早, 结束较迟, 持续天数较长, 空汛发生频次最少; 黄土高原汛期开始较迟, 其北部汛期结束最迟, 持续期也最长, 发生空汛的频次也比较多; 黄河下游地区汛期开始比较早, 结束最早, 汛期最短, 发生无大汛的频次较大; 河北平原地区, 汛期开始最迟, 结束较迟, 汛期较长, 发生无大汛的频次最多。与华北汛期开始和结束日相对应的东亚大气环流特征是:当西太平洋西部上空500hPa存在正的位势高度距平, 华北上空存在负的位势高度距平, 同时地面为“东高西低”的异常海平面气压场配置时, 异常偏南风到达30°N, 华北汛期开始; 当华北上空500hPa为较小的位势高度正距平, 日本海为位势高度正距平, 而地面上, 我国大陆和西太平洋之间为“西高东低”的异常海平面气压场配置时, 异常偏北风控制我国东部地区, 华北汛期结束。     

华北地区的降水特征及趋势估计

华北地区位于干旱和半干旱地区。气候降水是该区水资源的主要来源之一,也是影响该区水资源周期性变化的主要因素之一。华北及其北、中、南三个分区的年降水距平曲线变化趋势３具有相似性,而且此四个地区连续出现正距平的年数不超过４年,华北及其北、中部连续出现负距平的年数不超过５年,南部不超过６年,华北、黄淮和东北地区东部与印度次大陆大地区夏季降水距平之间存在正相关关系,同时又与澳洲大部分地区冬季降水距平有负相关     

Spatial-temporal characteristics of temperature variation in China

Summary Spatial-temporal characteristics of temperature variations were analyzed from China daily temperature based on 486 stations during the period 1960–2000. The method of hierarchical cluster analysis was used to divide the territory into sub-regional areas with a coherent evolution, both annually and seasonally. Areas numbering 7–9 are chosen to describe the regional features of air temperature in mainland China. All regions in mainland China experienced increasing trends of annual mean temperature. The trend of increasing temperature was about 0.2–0.3 °C/10 yr in northern China and less than 0.1 °C/10 yr in southern China. In the winter season, the increasing trend of temperature was about 0.5–0.7 °C/10 yr in northern China and about 0.2–0.3 °C/10 yr in southern China. The increasing trend of autumn temperature was mainly located in northwestern China and southwestern China including the Tibetan Plateau. In spring, the rising trend of temperature was concentrated in Northeast China and North China while there was a declining temperature trend of −0.13 °C/10 yr in the upper Yangtze River. In summer, the declining trend of temperature was only concentrated in the mid-low valley of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers while surrounding this valley there were increasing trends in South China, Southwest China, Northwest China, and Northeast China. Rapid changes in temperature in various regions were detected by the multiple timescale t-test method. The year 1969 was a rapid change point from a high temperature to a low temperature along the Yangtze River and South China. In the years 1977–1979, temperature significantly increased from a lower level to a higher level in many places except for regions in North China and the Yangtze River. Another rapid increasing temperature trend was observed in 1987. In the years 1976–1979, a positive rapid change of summer temperature occurred in northwestern China and southwestern China while a decreasing temperature was found between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. A rapid increase of winter temperature was found for 1977–1979 and 1985–1986 in many places. There were increasing events of extreme temperature in broad areas except in the north part of Northeast China and the north part of the Xinjiang region. In winter, increasing temperature of the climate state and weakening temperature extremes are observed in northern China. In summer, both increasing temperature of the climate state and enhancing temperature extremes were commonly exhibited in northern China. Present address: Linfen Meteorological Office, Linfen 041000, Shanxi Province, China.     

夏季中国华北降水、印度降水与太平洋海表面温度的耦合关系

本文基于1951~2014年的站点观测资料以及再分析资料,应用多变量经验正交分解法（MEOF）研究了年际尺度上华北夏季降水、印度夏季降水与海表面温度之间的耦合关系（主要模态）。结果表明:当印度夏季降水偏强时,若同期夏季赤道中东太平洋海温表现为La Ni?a位相,则西太平洋暖池对流加强,副热带高压偏西偏北,有利于华北夏季降水与印度夏季降水一致增强。反之,当印度大部降水偏弱时,若同期夏季赤道中东太平洋海温表现为El Ni?o位相,则华北夏季降水和印度夏季降水一致减弱。然而,两地夏季降水的协同变化关系并不总是成立。当赤道中东太平洋海温异常随时间演变表现为冬春El Ni?o衰减型时,伴随着印度洋偶极子（IOD）正位相的衰减过程,这会减弱东亚夏季风,使得华北夏季降水偏少。此时印度半岛夏季降水增强区集中在其西部,无法形成连接印度和华北夏季降水异常的环半球遥相关（CGT）波列,可能使得华北夏季降水异常与全印度夏季降水异常成相反形势。这些结论揭示了中国华北夏季降水、印度夏季降水和海表面温度之间的耦合关系,有助于进一步理解海温外强迫对两地夏季降水之间相关关系的作用,从而对华北夏季降水的预测具有参考意义。     

20–50-day oscillation of summer Yangtze rainfall in response to intraseasonal variations in the subtropical high over the western North Pacific and South China Sea

The spatio-temporal variability in summer rainfall within eastern China is identified based on empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis of daily rain-gauge precipitation data for the period 1979–2003. Spatial coherence of rainfall is found in the Yangtze Basin, and a wavelet transform is applied to the corresponding principal component to capture the intraseasonal oscillation (ISO) of Yangtze rainfall. The ensemble mean wavelet spectrum, representing statistically significant intraseasonal variability, shows a predominant oscillation in summer Yangtze rainfall with a period of 20–50 days; a 10–20-day oscillation is pronounced during June and July. This finding suggests that the 20–50-day oscillation is a major agent in regulating summer Yangtze rainfall. Composite analyses reveal that the 20–50-day oscillation of summer Yangtze rainfall arises in response to intraseasonal variations in the western North Pacific subtropical high (WNPSH), which in turn is modulated by a Rossby wave-like coupled circulation–convection system that propagates northward and northwestward from the equatorial western Pacific. When an anomalous cyclone associated with this Rossby wave-like system reaches the South China Sea (SCS) and Philippine Sea, the WNPSH retreats northeastward due to a reduction in local pressure. Under these conditions, strong monsoonal southwesterlies blow mainly toward the SCS–Philippine Sea, while dry conditions form in the Yangtze Basin, with a pronounced divergent flow pattern. In contrast, the movement of an anomalous anticyclone over the SCS–Philippine Sea results in the southwestward extension of the WNPSH; consequently, the tropical monsoonal southwesterlies veer to the northeast over the SCS and then converge toward the Yangtze Basin, producing wet conditions. Therefore, the 20–50-day oscillation of Yangtze rainfall is also manifest as a seesaw pattern in convective anomalies between the Yangtze Basin and the SCS–Philippine Sea. A considerable zonal shift in the WNPSH is associated with extreme dry (wet) episodes in the Yangtze Basin, with an abrupt eastward (westward) shift in the WNPSH generally leading the extreme negative (positive) Yangtze rainfall anomaly by a 3/8-period of the 20–50-day oscillation. This finding may have implications for improving extended-range weather forecasting in the Yangtze Basin.     

Analysis of recent trends in mean maximum and minimum temperatures in a region of the NW of Spain (Castilla y León)

Summary The present paper is an analysis of mean maximum and minimum temperatures carried out on monthly, seasonal and annual time-scales examining the data collected at 171 meteorological stations over a region in the North West of Spain (Castilla y León) for the period 1961–1997. Various statistical tools were used to detect and describe significant trends in these data. The magnitude of the trends was derived from the slopes of the regression lines using the least squares method, and the statistical significance was determined by means of the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test. The pattern obtained is quite similar for mean maximum and minimum temperatures with increases in all months of the year, and in the annual series. The seasonal series corresponding to winter and summer also followed this same pattern. Spring and autumn were found to be more irregular. Because maximum temperature increased at a higher rate than minimum temperature in this period, an increase in the annual diurnal temperature range (DTR) was observed. The correlation between the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the regional maximum and minimum temperatures and DTR series for the period 1961–1997 have also be studied in this paper.     

Climate change and implications for agriculture in Niger

Five-year moving averages of annual rainfall for 21 locations in Niger showed a decline in the annual rainfall after 1960. Correlation coefficients of the moving averages of monthly rainfall with annual rainfall showed significant correlations between the decline in the annual rainfall with decreased rainfall in August. Analysis of daily rainfall data for rainy season parameters of interest to agriculture suggested that from 1965 there was a significant decrease in the amount of rainfall and in the number of rainy days in the months of July and August, resulting in a decreased volume of rainfall for each rainstorm. In comparison to the period 1945–64, major shifts have occurred in the average dates of onset and ending of rains during 1965–88. The length of the growing season was reduced by 5–20 days across different locations in Niger. The standard deviation for the onset and ending of the rains as well as the length of the growing season has increased, implying that cropping has become more risky. Water balance calculations also demonstrated that the probability of rainfall exceeding potential evapotranspiration decreased during the growing season. The implications of these changes for agriculture in Niger are discussed using field data.     

Adaptation of agriculture to warming in Northeast China

Northeast China comprises Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning Provinces, with a total area of 790,000 km² and a population of about 107 million. Northeast China, located at relatively high latitudes, (from about 39 to 53°N), is one of the coolest regions in China with long and cold winters, a short growth season and frequent cold extreme events, which are adverse to agricultural production. However, since the 1980s, Northeast China has experienced significant warming with annual mean temperature rising by 1.0–2.5°C. The increase of accumulated temperature, the extension of the growth period and the recession of summer cool disasters all contributed to improved conditions for crop growth and led to a northward movement of the agricultural climate zone. In addition, the adaptation to warming including the adjustment of crop composition and structure as well as the adoption of advanced technologies greatly facilitated agricultural development. As a result, total grain production in the region increased rapidly. This paper describes in detail climate change, adaptation measures and final agricultural outcomes, alongside with economic and political factors and the role of different political actors in Northeast China.