Some formation peculiarities of physical and mechanical ice characteristics in hummocky formations

Main differences are considered in the formation of physical and mechanical ice properties in hummocky formations as compared with level areas of the ice cover. The results of laboratory and field investigations demonstrate that these differences are caused both by dynamometamorphic transformations of crystal ice structure as a result of the compression of ice fields before the beginning of hummocky ice formation and in the process of consolidation of ice blocks within the ice hummocks formed during the winter-spring period.     

沙尘气溶胶对云和降水影响的模拟研究

采用二维分档云模式,对比背景大气气溶胶分布,讨论了扬沙和沙尘暴天气条件下矿物气溶胶对云微物理结构、光学特性以及降水形成的影响.结果表明:扬沙和沙尘暴天气增加大气中大核和巨核的浓度,促进云中水汽的活化,使降水提前出现,暖云和冷云降水量均大幅增加,但可忽略巨核增加对云光学厚度和反照率的作用;当矿物沙尘粒子同时作为有效的云凝结核和冰核参与云的发展时,冰核浓度增加使水成物有效半径减小,抑制了暖云和冷云降水,云内存留的大量冰晶增强云的光学厚度和反照率.     

STUDY ON SEA ICE WITH GMS REAL-TIME DATA

By use of GMS-4 infrared brightness temperature and visible albedo data from January toFebruary in 1995,the method for extracting of sea ice parameters is developed.The digital remotesensing picture is obtained on Liaodong Bay.Based on the difference in physical properties betweenice and water,a criterion distinguishing ice from water is set up.Ice thickness has been calculatedaccording to the relationship between ice thickness and brightness as well as albedo.Iceconcentration is retrieved due to the difference on albedo between ice and water.The resultsindicate that the accuracy of ice-water distinguishing is 84.8%,the errors of ice thickness and iceconcentration are 3.8 cm and 22%,respectively.     

STUDY ON SEA ICE WITH GMS REAL-TIME DATA*

By use of GMS-4 infrared brightness temperature and visible albedo data from January to February in 1995,the method for extracting of sea ice parameters is developed.The digital remote sensing picture is obtained on Liaodong Bay.Based on the difference in physical properties between ice and water,a criterion distinguishing ice from water is set up.Ice thickness has been calculated according to the relationship between ice thickness and brightness as well as albedo.Ice concentration is retrieved due to the difference on albedo between ice and water.The results indicate that the accuracy of ice-water distinguishing is 84.8%,the errors of ice thickness and ice concentration are 3.8 cm and 22%,respectively.     

On the Arctic Ocean ice thickness response to changes in the external forcing

Submarine and satellite observations show that the Arctic Ocean ice cover has undergone a large thickness reduction and a decrease in the areal extent during the last decades. Here the response of the Arctic Ocean ice cover to changes in the poleward atmospheric energy transport, F _wall, is investigated using coupled atmosphere-ice-ocean column models. Two models with highly different complexity are used in order to illustrate the importance of different internal processes and the results highlight the dramatic effects of the negative ice thickness—ice volume export feedback and the positive surface albedo feedback. The steady state ice thickness as a function of F _wall is determined for various model setups and defines what we call ice thickness response curves. When a variable surface albedo and snow precipitation is included, a complex response curve appears with two distinct regimes: a perennial ice cover regime with a fairly linear response and a less responsive seasonal ice cover regime. The two regimes are separated by a steep transition associated with surface albedo feedback. The associated hysteresis is however small, indicating that the Arctic climate system does not have an irreversible tipping point behaviour related to the surface albedo feedback. The results are discussed in the context of the recent reduction of the Arctic sea ice cover. A new mechanism related to regional and temporal variations of the ice divergence within the Arctic Ocean is presented as an explanation for the observed regional variation of the ice thickness reduction. Our results further suggest that the recent reduction in areal ice extent and loss of multiyear ice is related to the albedo dependent transition between seasonal and perennial ice i.e. large areas of the Arctic Ocean that has previously been dominated by multiyear ice might have been pushed below a critical mean ice thickness, corresponding to the above mentioned transition, and into a state dominated by seasonal ice.     

GMS实时资料遥感海冰的研究

利用１９９５年１，２月ＧＭＳ－４的红外亮温和可见光反照率资料，以辽东湾海冰为对象，根据冰水物理特性的差异，建立了冰水识别的判据和冰厚与亮温、反照率的对应关系，反演出冰厚和冰密集度数字分布。结果表明，冰水识别的准确率为８４．８％，冰厚反演误差为３．８ｃｍ，密集度反演误差为２２％。     

Potential decadal predictability and its sensitivity to sea ice albedo parameterization in a global coupled model

Decadal prediction is one focus of the upcoming 5th IPCC Assessment report. To be able to interpret the results and to further improve the decadal predictions it is important to investigate the potential predictability in the participating climate models. This study analyzes the upper limit of climate predictability on decadal time scales and its dependency on sea ice albedo parameterization by performing two perfect ensemble experiments with the global coupled climate model EC-Earth. In the first experiment, the standard albedo formulation of EC-Earth is used, in the second experiment sea ice albedo is reduced. The potential prognostic predictability is analyzed for a set of oceanic and atmospheric parameters. The decadal predictability of the atmospheric circulation is small. The highest potential predictability was found in air temperature at 2?m height over the northern North Atlantic and the southern South Atlantic. Over land, only a few areas are significantly predictable. The predictability for continental size averages of air temperature is relatively good in all northern hemisphere regions. Sea ice thickness is highly predictable along the ice edges in the North Atlantic Arctic Sector. The meridional overturning circulation is highly predictable in both experiments and governs most of the decadal climate predictability in the northern hemisphere. The experiments using reduced sea ice albedo show some important differences like a generally higher predictability of atmospheric variables in the Arctic or higher predictability of air temperature in Europe. Furthermore, decadal variations are substantially smaller in the simulations with reduced ice albedo, which can be explained by reduced sea ice thickness in these simulations.     

定量计算渤海海冰参数的遥感方法

利用NOAA及FY-1卫星监测渤海海冰的亮度温度、反照率及其与海水的差异建立了冰、水识别判据,并根据海冰反照率与冰厚的关系,对海冰进行分类。在解决了混合象元内含冰信息提取的基础上,计算了海冰覆盖度和面积等参数。     

青海省甘德两次降雪过程的微气象特征分析

利用青海省甘德两次降雪过程的微气象观测数据,探讨了两场降雪过程雪深、雪密度、雪中含冰量、雪中含水量和雪面温度的变化情况,分析了地表反照率与雪密度、雪中含冰量及雪中含水量的关系,结合降雪过程近地面温、湿、风廓线特征分析了积雪对近地面温、湿、风梯度的影响。结果表明:积雪覆盖会导致地表反照率显著增加,降雪过后正午时地表反照率可高达0.8～0.9。随着积雪的消融,地表反照率逐渐减小;积雪反照率与雪密度和雪中含冰量呈正相关,与雪中含水量呈负相关;地表积雪覆盖会导致近地面温度梯度绝对值减小,相对湿度梯度绝对值在凌晨减小、午后增大,地表积雪覆盖对近地面风速梯度变化并无特定的影响。     

The Surface Albedo Of The Vatnajökull Ice Cap, Iceland: A Comparison Between Satellite-Derived And Ground-Based Measurements

The temporal and spatial variations in the surface albedo of the Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland, are investigated. A time series of the surface albedo is composed for the summer of 1996 using satellite radiance measurements from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). This time series is compared with ground measurements carried out during a glacio-meteorological experiment during the same summer on the ice cap. The AVHRR is able to reproduce the development in time of the surface albedo fairly well. The large systematic differences found for some of the stations on the ice are attributed to sub-pixel-scale variations in the albedo. An attempt is made to confirm this hypothesis using satellite radiance measurements carried out by the Thematic Mapper (TM) and measurements made with a portable albedometer. The TM has a pixel size of 30 × 30 m whereas the pixel size of the AVHRR is 1 × 1 km. Although the TM measurements show greater variability in the albedo than do the AVHRR measurements, the large systematic difference remains. Measurements with the portable albedometer show a large spread in the albedo at sites with large systematic differences. This implies that the scale of the albedo variations is smaller than the scale of the AVHRR and TM pixels.     

The role of sea ice in the temperature-precipitation feedback of glacial cycles

The response of the hydrological cycle to climate variability and change is a critical open question, where model reliability is still unsatisfactory, yet upon which past climate history can shed some light. Sea ice is a key player in the climate system and in the hydrological cycle, due to its strong albedo effect and its insulating effect on local evaporation and air-sea heat flux. Using an atmospheric general circulation model with specified sea surface temperature and sea-ice distribution, the role of sea ice in the hydrological cycle is investigated under last glacial maximum (LGM) and present day conditions, and by studying its contribution to the “temperature-precipitation feedback”. By conducting a set of sensitivity experiments in which the albedo and thickness of the sea ice are varied, the various effects of sea ice in the hydrological cycle are isolated. It is demonstrated that for a cold LGM like state, a warmer climate (as a result of reduced sea-ice cover) leads to an increase in snow precipitation over the ice sheets. The insulating effect of the sea ice on the hydrological cycle is found to be larger than the albedo effect. These two effects interact in a nonlinear way and their total effect is not equal to summing their separate contribution.     

Climate model sensitivity to sea ice albedo parameterization

Summary Three one-year experimental simulations with the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model (NCAR CCM) were performed with three sea ice albedo parameterizations and compared with control run results to examine their impact on polar surface temperature, planetary albedo and clouds. The first integration utilized sea ice albedos of the Arctic Basin for the spring and summer of 1977 derived from defence Meteorological Satellite Imagery (DMSP). The second simulation employed prescribed lead and melt pond fractions and an albedo weighting scheme. The third simulation involved the coupling of an interactive sea ice/snow albedo parameterization made a function of surface state.Results show that prescribed, and assumed true satellite sea ice albedos produced higher planetary albedos than those calculated with the standard CCM sea ice albedo scheme in the control run. As a result, lower temperatures (up to 0.5 K) and increased cloudiness are generated for the Arctic region. The standard CCM sea ice albedo scheme is used as an adjustment to maintain normal temperatures for the polar oceans. The radiative impact of leads and melt ponds warmed sea ice regions only for short time periods. The third scheme generated markedly lower planetary albedos (reductions of 0.07 to 0.17) and higher surface temperatures (up to 2.0 K) than control values.The CCM simulates a gradual decrease in spring and summer Arctic cloud cover whereas observations show a sharp spring increase. Examination of the CCM code, particularly the cloud parameterization, is required to address this problem.With 12 Figures     

Thermal properties of ice and of different types of open surface in the Antarctic Peninsula area

Results are considered of measurements of the temperature regime and albedo of different surfaces typical of polar regions. The measurements were carried out at King George Island, where, in summer, surfaces with different reflectivities and thermal properties are free of snow. Also, snow fields and ice with different morphometric properties persist during the whole summer. Tables of characteristic values of albedo and temperature of different surfaces and parametric relationships between albedo and temperature are presented. One of the important results is an improved interpretation of satellite images with low and medium resolution, which is impossible without detailed information on reflectivity of different surfaces.     

The Impact of Sediment-Laden Snow and Sea Ice in the Arctic on Climate

Sea ice formed over shallow Arctic shelves often entrains sediments resuspended from the sea floor. Some of this sediment-laden ice advects offshore into the Transpolar Drift Stream and the Beaufort Gyre of the Arctic Basin. Through the processes of seasonal melting at the top surface, and the freezing of clean ice on the bottom surface, these sediments tend, over time, to concentrate at the top of the ice where they can affect the surface albedo, and thus the absorbed solar radiation, when the ice is snow free. Similarly, wind-blown dust can reduce the albedo of snow. The question that is posed by this study is what is the impact of these sediments on the seasonal variation of sea ice, and how does it then affect climate? Experiments were conducted with a coupled energy balance climate-thermodynamic sea ice model to examine the impact of including sediments in the sea ice alone and in the sea ice and overlying snow. The focus of these experiments was the impact of the radiative and not the thermal properties of the sediments. The results suggest that if sea ice contains a significant amount of sediments which are covered by clean snow, there is only a small impact on the climate system. However, if the snow also contains significant sediments the impact on sea ice thickness and surface air temperature is much more significant.     

Albedo of coastal landfast sea ice in Prydz Bay,Antarctica: Observations and parameterization

The snow/sea-ice albedo was measured over coastal landfast sea ice in Prydz Bay, East Antarctica(off Zhongshan Station)during the austral spring and summer of 2010 and 2011. The variation of the observed albedo was a combination of a gradual seasonal transition from spring to summer and abrupt changes resulting from synoptic events, including snowfall, blowing snow, and overcast skies. The measured albedo ranged from 0.94 over thick fresh snow to 0.36 over melting sea ice. It was found that snow thickness was the most important factor influencing the albedo variation, while synoptic events and overcast skies could increase the albedo by about 0.18 and 0.06, respectively. The in-situ measured albedo and related physical parameters(e.g., snow thickness, ice thickness, surface temperature, and air temperature) were then used to evaluate four different snow/ice albedo parameterizations used in a variety of climate models. The parameterized albedos showed substantial discrepancies compared to the observed albedo, particularly during the summer melt period, even though more complex parameterizations yielded more realistic variations than simple ones. A modified parameterization was developed,which further considered synoptic events, cloud cover, and the local landfast sea-ice surface characteristics. The resulting parameterized albedo showed very good agreement with the observed albedo.     

The small ice cap instability in seasonal energy balance models

Results from a two-dimensional energy balance model with a realistic land-ocean distribution show that the small ice cap instability exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but not in the Northern Hemisphere. A series of experiments with a one-dimensional energy balance model with idealized geography are used to study the roles of the seasonal cycle and the land-ocean distribution. The results indicate that the seasonal cycle and land-ocean distribution can influence the strength of the albedo feedback, which is responsible for the small ice cap instability, through two factors: the temperature gradient and the amplitude of the seasonal cycle. The land-ocean distribution in the Southern Hemisphere favors the small ice cap instability, while the land-ocean distribution in the Northern Hemisphere does not. Because of the longitudinal variations of land-ocean distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, the behavior of ice lines in the Northern Hemisphere cannot be simulated and explained by the model with zonally symmetric land-ocean distribution. Model results suggest that the small ice cap instability may be a possible mechanism for the formation of the Antarctic icesheet. The model results cast doubt, however, on the role of the small ice cap instability in Northern Hemisphere glaciations. Offprint requests to: J Huang     

二维能量平衡模式对若干气候问题的研究

Based on a two-dimensional energy balance model, the studies on some climatic issues such as the re- lationship between ice cap latitude and solar constant, desertifieation, and the warming effect of carbon dioxide, have been reviewed and discussed. The phenomenon that a fixed solar constant might correspond to different equilibrium ice cap latitudes is determined by the continuity of albedo distribution. The disconti- nuity in albedo distribution increases the number of equilibrium ice cap latitudes. Desert would expand both northward and southward when desert surface albedo is increasing. This would deteriorate the ecological environment in border regions, and then threaten the existence of local inhabitants. Melting of the polar ice would not be accelerated, with increasing carbon dioxide concentration. The ice cap latitude would move northward slowly, with some “hiatus” periods, under the slowly increasing global average surface tempera- ture. According to the current research, future development of the two-dimensional energy balance model and possible progress are also forecasted.     

Declining summer snowfall in the Arctic: causes, impacts and feedbacks

Recent changes in the Arctic hydrological cycle are explored using in situ observations and an improved atmospheric reanalysis data set, ERA-Interim. We document a pronounced decline in summer snowfall over the Arctic Ocean and Canadian Archipelago. The snowfall decline is diagnosed as being almost entirely caused by changes in precipitation form (snow turning to rain) with very little influence of decreases in total precipitation. The proportion of precipitation falling as snow has decreased as a result of lower-atmospheric warming. Statistically, over 99% of the summer snowfall decline is linked to Arctic warming over the past two decades. Based on the reanalysis snowfall data over the ice-covered Arctic Ocean, we derive an estimate for the amount of snow-covered ice. It is estimated that the area of snow-covered ice, and the proportion of sea ice covered by snow, have decreased significantly. We perform a series of sensitivity experiments in which inter-annual changes in snow-covered ice are either unaccounted for, or are parameterized. In the parameterized case, the loss of snow-on-ice results in a substantial decrease in the surface albedo over the Arctic Ocean, that is of comparable magnitude to the decrease in albedo due to the decline in sea ice cover. Accordingly, the solar input to the Arctic Ocean is increased, causing additional surface ice melt. We conclude that the decline in summer snowfall has likely contributed to the thinning of sea ice over recent decades. The results presented provide support for the existence of a positive feedback in association with warming-induced reductions in summer snowfall.     

On the radiation characteristics of Antarctic Sea Ice

Abstract

Radiative measurements were carried out continuously during a cruise from Australia to Antarctica during austral summer 1995/96. Both shortwave and longwave radiative fluxes were measured. Some of the results are:

• The incoming solar radiation had a mean value of 217 W m^–2; this was a relatively weak value due to the large amount of fractional cloud cover observed. The sun was, for a large part of the trip, above the horizon for 24 hours a day.

• The reflectivity varied widely, not only as a function of sea‐ice concentration, but also as a function of ice type.

• Snow covered pack ice gave the highest albedo values (<70%), while flooded sea ice and thin ice reflected much less (<30%).

• For each sea‐ice type, short term observations showed a good relationship between albedo and ice concentration.

• The albedo increased with decreasing solar elevation.

• The net longwave radiation was negative (mean –27 W m–2); this small absolute value is due to a high amount of fractional cloud cover. There was a weak diurnal variation with a maximum loss (–33 W m^–2) in the early afternoon.

• On the average, the net radiation was positive for 17 hours, and negative for 7 hours a day. However, the duration of a positive balance depended strongly on the surface albedo.

• For the observed albedo values, modelling results showed that the net radiation was always positive when averaged over a day. The magnitude, however, depended strongly on the surface albedo, varying by more than the factor of three.