“板块构造与大陆构造”专题讨论——大陆构造与板内地震

板块构造理论是地学研究的一次革命,它推动了当前地球科学的发展。但是用刚性板块运动学的理论不能解释大陆内部复杂的构造形变作用和强烈的地震活动,大陆构造理论是在板块构造的基础上加以补充和发展,本文简要地介绍大陆构造研究的要点,特别是大陆构造与板内地震活动的关系。我国是一个以大陆为主体的多震国家,板内地震活动应结合岩石圈结构、块体运动学和流变学进行研究。     

大陆地质与大陆构造和大陆动力学

当代地球科学发展的新需求与板块构造对大陆地质的深化研究,使大陆问题成为21世纪地学发展的前沿研究领域、热点和关键。文中在提出“大陆动力学”研究20多年后的今天,进行关于大陆研究的新思考,从讨论厘定大陆研究的有关争议概念、大陆的基本问题、中国大陆构造的典型实例以及与世界同类范例的简要对比出发,综合概括了大陆地质与大陆构造和大陆动力学研究的关键科学问题与进一步探索研究的思考课题。提出了在大陆研究中,在进一步精确深化板块构造对大陆的研究的同时,应突出加强大陆构造中有无非板块构造动力及其远程效应的大陆内的、在深部动力学与陆块间差异非均衡背景下由陆内陆块间相互作用导致的真正陆内构造及其动力学问题的研究,以便为深化发展板块构造、认知大陆、探索大陆动力学、构建包括板块构造在内新的行星地球构造观作出努力与探索。     

花岗岩与大陆构造、岩浆热场与成矿

文中指出,花岗岩研究存在两个误区:(1)花岗岩没有自己独立的理论,花岗岩主要是效仿玄武岩的理论;(2)花岗岩的理论主要是应用板块构造的理论,而板块构造的理论并不适合大陆花岗岩。板块构造理论只能解决海洋里及海洋边缘的问题(如安第斯),不能解决大陆本身的问题。花岗岩在海洋里很少,绝大部分在大陆。花岗岩能否分离结晶是学术界争论的重大问题,本文从野外和镜下关系上、从理论上、方法学上和三段论法的逻辑学上进行了分析,指出花岗岩分离结晶作用是不可能的。混合作用是又一个争论的焦点,花岗岩是能够发生混合作用的,关键是笔者认为,花岗岩的混合作用主要发生在下地壳底部,而不是在花岗岩侵位和上升的过程中。目前,花岗岩研究领域里地球化学最受重视,花岗岩地球化学研究应当着力解决两个问题:(1)解决生产中提出的问题;(2)解决地球化学学科自身发展提出的问题。离开这两条,花岗岩地球化学研究即迷失了方向。笔者认为,花岗岩区分为大洋系列和大陆系列,位于海洋和海洋边缘受俯冲作用影响的为大洋系列;位于大陆内部的属于大陆系列。现存的一些花岗岩构造环境判别图仅适用于大洋系列的花岗岩,而不适用于大陆系列的花岗岩。大陆系列花岗岩的地球动力学意义不是构造环境或碰撞环境,而是地壳底部温度和压力状况。我们提出的花岗岩按照Sr-Yb的分类,适合于解释大陆花岗岩的地球动力学问题。花岗岩与成矿的关系是学术界争论的重大问题,争论的焦点主要集中在两个问题上:(1)岩浆是怎么形成的?岩浆源自哪里?(2)流体是怎么形成的?流体来自哪里,流体如何上升?为了探讨上述问题,文中主要讨论了岩浆热场理论,希望用这个理论去解释与花岗岩有关的各种成矿作用,包括与岩浆有关的各种变质和沉积热液成矿作用以及岩浆热场对煤和油气的影响等。在此基础上,提出了"与花岗岩有关的成矿组合"的概念。岩浆热场最重要的意义可能是解释了大规模岩浆活动为什么与大规模成矿作用有关的问题,指出大规模岩浆活动所造成的是1+12的效果。大数据技术是当今社会的热门话题,大数据的特点主要不在于数据的大,而在于思维的新,用新思维去处理数据才是大数据的特点。不强调"因果关系",重视"关联关系";不关注"为什么",只关心"是什么",是大数据思维的特点。其实这个特点可能恰恰最符合地质找矿的实际。板块构造引发了地球科学的一场变革,但是,它只限于地球科学理论上的变革。而大数据带来的这场变革主要不是体现在地球科学理论方面,而是地球科学研究方法和研究思路方面,它所带来的效益将是前所未有的。     

再论大陆构造与动力学

采用大陆构造时空动态相关分析法，对大陆构造进行系统的分层，分块，分阶段域构造解析，认为包括隆块，陷块和旋块等基本类型的断块构造具有不同的物质成分，变形强度，流变状态的层状构造是大陆构造的基本型式。在构造活动期间层流隆陷构造系统发生大规模的物质行，构成动态的循环体系，大陆地壳下部层圈以热动力作用为主，造成粘性热流物质和韧性固流物质沿着壳内流层从幔隆区流向拗区；上部层圈以应力作用为主，与下地壳层流相关     

关于大陆构造研究的一些思考与讨论

指出板块构造理论在解释大陆构造中的不足之处,从而在进一步深化板块构造理论发展的同时,构建大陆构造理论体系;通过长期大陆构造研究实践并利用国内外大陆造山带的6个例子提出有关大陆的基本问题,诸如早期大陆起源、超大陆方式演化的大陆演化机制以及大洋和大陆岩石圈的本质不同和构造旋回;说明大陆是由板块构造(包括可能的板块构造远程效应)和大陆自身机制分别形成的组分的拼合体.主张大陆有自身的机制操控它的起源、保存和演化.在排除了来自板块边缘以及板块远程效应的作用力的前提下,出现在陆内环境的造山作用可由大陆本身尤其可能由陆内中小块体之间的相互作用引发.需要强化大陆构造研究,在深化板块构造理论的同时,探索和创建大陆构造理论体系.     

花岗岩与地壳厚度关系探讨

文中首先从板块构造与大陆构造的对比出发,指出板块构造主要研究洋壳,洋壳主要研究玄武岩,玄武岩主要研究构造环境.大陆构造主要研究陆壳,陆壳玄武岩少花岗岩多,因此,花岗岩在大陆构造研究中具有特殊的地位.由于花岗岩比玄武岩复杂得多,其中尤以源岩和深度对花岗岩的影响最大,是大陆花岗岩研究最重要的课题.文中接着讨论了Sr和Yb的...     

超越板块构造——我国构造地质学要做些什么?

对近十年来全球构造学和构造地质学的重要进展进行了简要评述.30年前建立的全球构造理论改变了人们对地球及其演化的认识.作为固体地球统一理论的板块构造主要涉及刚性板块边界之间的变形、地震活动和火山作用.至今还没有完整理论阐明板块运动的驱动力和地幔对流机制.板块边界和板内变形等许多问题仍然无法回答.大陆岩石圈和大洋岩石圈在成分、厚度和力学强度方面有明显的差别, 因此现有板块构造不完全适合于大陆构造.大陆地壳和地幔流变学的综合研究是认识大陆构造和超越板块构造的最佳途径.流变学是大陆造山带几何学和动力学的桥梁.大陆岩石圈对构造作用、重力作用和热作用的响应在很大程度上取决于其流变强度.岩石圈流变性质是岩石圈分层和塑性流动的主导因素.大量透入性变形和巨型大陆造山带内部构造显示非刚性特征.大陆构造和力学行为主要由地壳强度而不是地幔强度所控制.从大陆岩石圈多层性和力学强度不均匀性表征看, 现在是抛弃传统“三明治”构造模式的时候了.面对地球系统科学和地球动力学新思维发展趋势, 多学科综合研究大陆构造(造山带)和加速高水平构造地质学人才的培养是我国构造地质学发展的最紧迫任务      

大陆克拉通早期构造演化历史探讨:以华北为例

大陆早期构造演化的研究一直是大陆地质学研究的焦点问题.在华北克拉通基底构造1∶200万编图研究基础上, 本文开展基底断裂边界、构造样式及后期叠加关系的研究, 借鉴比较大地构造理论, 对华北克拉通基底重新进行了构造区划.结合标志性构造单元及其时代、同位素年龄数据库的综合研究, 提出华北早期构造格局演化及其重大构造热事件.华北克拉通基底主要由大面积的新太古代TTG杂岩及表壳岩系组成, 新太古代涉及活动陆缘环境的大规模陆壳增生及不同微陆块的碰撞聚合过程, 造成新太古代末期陆壳迅速增生和克拉通化.古元古代初期开始伸展裂解和早期盖层发育阶段, 古元古代晚期发生微陆块碰撞缝合, 形成超级克拉通, 并在克拉通西北边缘发生强烈改造作用.1.84Ga前后, 华北克拉通经历最强烈的一次伸展裂解过程, 从超级克拉通裂解, 开始了独立的构造演化, 在伸展构造背景下, 克拉通基底被强烈隆升冷却, 经历风化剥蚀, 发育沉积盖层.以上构造格局及其构造热事件提供了早期超级大陆再造研究的构造制约条件.      

花岗岩类与构造迁移

研究表明,花岗岩类表现了在时间上、空间上,及地质性状上的构造迁移特征,具有清晰的侧向、走向迁移规律。构造迁移的产生是由于板块构造运动在时间上、空间上作用强度、俯冲角度等的差异所致。所以,构造迁移是板块构造运动作用不平衡性的一种标志。花岗岩类岩浆作用迁移的运动轨迹,反映了板块构造运动的这一特征。     

论中国大陆复杂和混杂的碰撞带构造

中国大陆碰撞带是以结构复杂、形成过程复杂和物质成分趋于混杂为主要特征的。在构造特征上 ,表现为由构造岩片和混杂岩带所组成 ,形成扇状褶皱和对冲型逆掩断层。在剖面上常形成楔状(鳄鱼式 )构造 ,在平面上可构成嵌入构造 ,它们其实是两个板块在碰撞过程中互相挤压、缩短与穿插的、一个统一的三维共轭剪切断裂系统中的不同表现形式。绝大多数中国大陆碰撞带都不是一次形成的 ,而是经历了多期次、活动性质各不相同的、复杂的形成过程。为了进一步提高碰撞带的研究水平 ,应该把碰撞带及其两侧的板块当作一个整体来进行综合研究 ,应该大力加强碰撞带周邻板块的沉积古地理、生物古地理、古地磁学、地球化学和构造变形、变位资料的系统研究。碰撞作用时期是元素、岩石和构造单元趋于混杂的时期 ,而不是有利于元素、物质的分异和富集。碰撞带的主碰撞期形成的矿床是十分有限的。笔者推测有 4种类型的矿床可能将成为西部古碰撞带地区找矿的主要目标。     

谈塔里木板块开合构造与层次成矿问题——以层控型金属矿床为例

通过塔里木板块的构造开合演化及古地理变迁,去追索层控型金属矿床成矿的时空规律,从而划分出老(元古代,以中元古代为主)、中(晚古生代,以泥盆纪-石炭纪为主)、青(中新生代,以白垩纪-新近纪为主。)三个集中成矿区间(期),并言明其层次成矿构造属性及空间分布格局。     

Stagnant lid tectonics:Perspectives from silicate planets,dwarf planets,large moons,and large asteroids

To better understand Earth's present tectonic style-plate tectonics—and how it may have evolved from single plate(stagnant lid) tectonics, it is instructive to consider how common it is among similar bodies in the Solar System. Plate tectonics is a style of convection for an active planetoid where lid fragment(plate) motions reflect sinking of dense lithosphere in subduction zones, causing upwelling of asthenosphere at divergent plate boundaries and accompanied by focused upwellings, or mantle plumes;any other tectonic style is usefully called "stagnant lid" or "fragmented lid". In 2015 humanity completed a 50+ year effort to survey the 30 largest planets, asteroids, satellites, and inner Kuiper Belt objects,which we informally call "planetoids" and use especially images of these bodies to infer their tectonic activity. The four largest planetoids are enveloped in gas and ice(Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)and are not considered. The other 26 planetoids range in mass over 5 orders of magnitude and in diameter over 2 orders of magnitude, from massive Earth down to tiny Proteus; these bodies also range widely in density, from 1000 to 5500 kg/m~3. A gap separates 8 silicate planetoids with ρ = 3000 kg/m~3 or greater from 20 icy planetoids(including the gaseous and icy giant planets) with ρ = 2200 kg/m~3 or less. We define the "Tectonic Activity Index"(TAI), scoring each body from 0 to 3 based on evidence for recent volcanism, deformation, and resurfacing(inferred from impact crater density). Nine planetoids with TAI = 2 or greater are interpreted to be tectonically and convectively active whereas 17 with TAI 2 are inferred to be tectonically dead. We further infer that active planetoids have lithospheres or icy shells overlying asthenosphere or water/weak ice. TAI of silicate(rocky) planetoids positively correlates with their inferred Rayleigh number. We conclude that some type of stagnant lid tectonics is the dominant mode of heat loss and that plate tectonics is unusual. To make progress understanding Earth's tectonic history and the tectonic style of active exoplanets, we need to better understand the range and controls of active stagnant lid tectonics.     

Neoarchean granite-greenstone belts and related ore mineralization in the North China Craton:An overview

Tectonic processes involving amalgamations of microblocks along zones of ocean closure represented by granite-greenstone belts(GGB) were fundamental in building the Earth's early continents. The crustal growth and cratonization of the North China Craton(NCC) are correlated to the amalgamation of microblocks welded by 2.75-2.6 Ga and ~2.5 Ga GGBs. The lithological assemblages in the GGBs are broadly represented by volcano-sedimentary sequences, subduction-collision related granitoids and bimodal volcanic rocks(basalt and dacite) interlayered with minor komatiites and calc-alkalic volcanic rocks(basalt, andesite and felsic rock). The geochemical features of meta-basalts in the major GGBs of the NCC display affinity with N-MORB, E-MORB, OIB and calc-alkaline basalt, suggesting that the microblocks were separated by oceanic realm. The granitoid rocks display arc signature with enrichment of LILE(K,Rb, Sr, Ba) and LREE, and depletion of HFSE(Nb, Ta, Th, U, Ti) and HREE, and fall in the VAG field. The major mineralization includes Neoarchean BIF-type iron and VMS-type Cu-Zb deposits and these,together with the associated supracrustal rocks possibly formed in back-arc basins or arc-related oceanic slab subduction setting with or without input from mantle plumes. The 2.75-2.60 Ga TTG rocks,komatiites, meta-basalts and metasedimentary rocks in the Yanlingguan GGB are correlated to the upwelling mantle plume with eruption close to the continental margin within an ocean basin. The volcanosedimentary rocks and granitoid rocks in the late Neoarchean GGBs display formation ages of 2.60-2.48 Ga, followed by metamorphism at 2.52-2.47 Ga, corresponding to a typical modern-style subduction-collision system operating at the dawn of Proterozoic. The late Neoarchean komatiite(Dongwufenzi GGB), sanukitoid(Dongwufenzi GGB and Western Shandong GGB), BIF(Zunhua GGB) and VMS deposit(Hongtoushan-Qingyuan-Helong GGB) have closer connection to a combined process of oceanic slab subduction and mantle plume. The Neoarchean cratonization of the NCC appears to have involved two stages of tectonic process along the 2.75-2.6 Ga GGB and ~2.5 Ga GGBs, the former involve plume-arc interaction process, and the latter involving oceanic lithospheric subduction, with or without arcplume interaction.     

Biostratinomy and facies analysis of the upper Cretaceous oyster storm shell beds of the Duwi formation, Qusseir District, Red Sea Region, Egypt

The Maastrichtian oyster Lopha villei (Coquand) occurs abundantly in the upper part of the Duwi Formation in the Red Sea region, Egypt. It forms thin undulating sharp-based shell beds that comprise both reclining and encrusting morphotypes of Lopha villei. Bed-by-bed biostratinomic and facies analyses of these shell beds confirm their shallow marine origin and formation by storm events. A tempestite model, explaining the mode of formation and the idealized sequence of events of such storm shell beds, has been inferred.     

Cenozoic Plate interaction of the Australia and Philippine Sea Plates: “hit-and-run” tectonics

Recent studies in northwest New Guinea have shown the presence of at least two marginal basins of different age, both of which formed in back-arc settings. The older basin opened between the Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, a remnant of which is now preserved as the New Guinea Ophiolite. Its obduction started at 40 Ma and it was finally emplaced on the Australian margin at 30 Ma. The younger basin was active during the Oligocene to Middle Miocene and was obducted in the Early Pliocene. Studies of the western edge of the Philippine Sea also reveal an important deformation of the Philippine arc in the Oligocene, which hitherto has remained unexplained. Using information from these systems, paleomagnetic results, kinematic reconstructions and geochemistry of the supra-subduction ophiolite, we present a plate model to explain the region's Eo–Oligocene development. We suggest that an extensive portion of oceanic crust extended the Australian Plate a considerable distance north of the Australian Craton. As Australia began its steady 7–8 cm/year northward drift in the Early Eocene, this lithosphere was subducted. Thus, the portion of the Philippine Sea Plate carrying the Taiwan–Philippine Arc to its present site may have actually been in contact with the ophiolite now in New Guinea and obduction led to deformation of the Philippine Sea Plate itself. Neogene Plate kinematics transported the deformed belt in contact with the Sunda block in the Late Miocene and Pliocene. This interpretation has implications for the origin for the Philippine Sea Plate and the potential incorporation of continental fragments against its boundaries.     

On the tectonics of the Neocomian Rio do Peixe Rift Basin, NE Brazil: Lessons from gravity, magnetics, and radiometric data

A geophysical perspective based on well-acquired gravity, magnetic, and radiometric data provides good insights into the basin architectural elements and tectonic evolution of the Rio do Peixe Basin (RPB), an Early Cretaceous intracontinental basin in the northeast Brazilian rift system, which developed during the opening of the South Atlantic. NW–SE-trending extensional forces acting over an intensively deformed Precambrian basement yielded a composite basin architecture strongly controlled by preexisting, mechanically weak fault zones in the upper crust. Reactivated NE–SW and E–W ductile shear zones of Brasiliano age (0.6 Ga) divided the RPB into three asymmetrical half-grabens (Brejo das Freiras, Sousa, and Pombal subbasins), separated by basement highs of granite bodies that seem to anchor and distinguish the mechanical subsidence of the subbasins. Radiometric and geopotential field data highlight the relationship between the tectonic stress field and the role of a preexisting structural framework inserted in the final rift geometry. The up-to-2000 m thick half-grabens are sequentially located at the inflexion of sigmoidal-shaped shear zones and acquire a typical NE–SW-oriented elliptic shape. The Sousa Subbasin is the single exception. Because of its uncommon E–W elongated form, three-dimensional gravity modeling reveals an E–W axis of depocenters within the Sousa Subbasin framework, in which the eastern shoulders are controlled by NE–SW-trending faults. These faults belong to the Precambrian structural fabric, as is well illustrated by the gamma ray and magnetic signatures of the basement grain. Release faults were identified nearly perpendicular or oblique to master faults, forming marginal strike ramps and horst structures in all subbasins. The emplacement mechanism of Brasiliano granites around the RPB was partially oriented by the same structural framework, as is indicated by the gravity signature of the granitic bodies after removal of the gravity effect of the basin-filling deposits. The RPB major-fault occurrence along the releasing bend of a strong discontinuity – the so-called Portalegre Shear Zone – in addition to the configuration of a gentle crustal thinning, according to gravity field studies, suggests that a crustal discontinuity governs the nucleation of the RPB, followed probably by small displacement in deep crustal levels accommodating low-rate stretching during basin subsidence.