Comparing streambed light availability and canopy cover in streams with old-growth versus early-mature riparian forests in western Oregon

Light availability strongly influences stream primary production, water temperatures and resource availability at the base of stream food webs. In headwater streams, light is regulated primarily by the riparian forest, but few studies have evaluated the influence of riparian forest stand age and associated structural differences on light availability. In this study, we evaluated canopy cover and streambed light exposure in four second-order streams within paired reaches of primary old-growth versus second-growth mature riparian forests. Stand age class was used as a proxy here for canopy complexity. We estimated stream canopy cover using a spherical densiometer. Local streambed light exposure was quantified and compared within and between reaches using fluorescein dye photodegradation. Reaches with complex old-growth riparian forests had frequent canopy gaps which lead to greater stream light availability compared to adjacent reaches with simpler second-growth riparian forests. We quantified light exposure at relatively high resolution (every 5 m) and also found greater variability in stream light along the reaches with old-growth riparian forests in three of the four streams. Canopy gaps were particularly important in creating variable light within and between reaches. This work demonstrates the importance of the age, developmental stage, and structure of riparian forests in controlling stream light. The highly variable nature of light on the stream benthos also highlights the value of multiple measurements of light or canopy structure when quantifying stream light.     

Assessing the effects of post‐pine beetle forest litter on snow albedo

The effect of forest litter on snow surface albedo has been subject to limited study, mainly in the hardwood‐dominated forests of the northeastern United States. Given the recent pine beetle infestation in Western North America and associated increases in litter production, this study examines the effects of forest litter on snow surface albedo in the coniferous forests of south‐central British Columbia. Measured changes in canopy transmittance provide an indication of canopy loss or total litterfall over the winter of 2007–2008. Relationships between percent litter cover, an index of albedo, snow depth, and snow ablation during the 2008 melt season are compared between a mature, young, and clearcut coniferous stand. Results indicate a strong feedback effect between canopy loss and subsequent enhanced shortwave transmittance, and litter accumulation on the snow surface from that canopy loss. However, this relationship is confounded by other variables concurrently affecting albedo. While results suggest that a relatively small percent litter cover can have a significant effect on albedo and ablation, further research is underway to extract the litter signal from that of other factors affecting albedo, particularly snow depth. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distinguishing streamflow trends caused by changes in climate,forest cover,and permafrost in a large watershed in northeastern China

Understanding how rivers respond to changes in land cover, climate, and subsurface conditions is critical for sustainably managing water resources and ecosystems. In this study, long‐term hydrologic, climate, and satellite data (1973–2012) from the Upper Tahe River watershed (2359 km²) in the Da Hinggan Mountains of northeast China were analysed to quantify the relative hydrologic effects of climate variability (system input) and the combined influences of forest cover change and permafrost thaw (system characteristics) on average annual streamflow (system response) using 2 methods: the sensitivity‐based method and the Kendall–Theil robust line method. The study period was subdivided into a forest harvesting period (1973–1987), a forest stability period (1988–2001), and a forest recovery period (2002–2012). The results indicated that the combined effects of forest harvesting and permafrost thaw on streamflow (+ 47.0 mm) from the forest harvesting period to the forest stability period was approximately twice as large as the effect associated with climate variability (+20.2 mm). Similarly, from the forest stability period to the forest recovery period, the decrease in average annual streamflow attributed to the combined effects of forest recovery and permafrost thaw (?38.0 mm) was much greater than the decrease due to climate variability (?22.2 mm). A simple method was used to separate the distinct impacts of forest cover change and permafrost thaw, but distinguishing these influences is difficult due to changes in surface and subsurface hydrologic connectivity associated with permafrost thaw. The results highlight the need to consider multiple streamflow drivers in future watershed and aquatic ecosystem management. Due to the ecological and hydrological susceptibility to disturbances in the Da Hinggan Mountains, forest harvesting will likely negatively impact ecohydrological processes in this region, and the effects of forest species transition in the forest recovery process should be further investigated.     

A conceptual model of water yield effects from beetle‐induced tree death in snow‐dominated lodgepole pine forests

In regions of western North America with snow‐dominated hydrology, the presence of forested watersheds can significantly influence streamflow compared to areas with other vegetation cover types. Widespread tree death in these watersheds can thus dramatically alter many ecohydrologic processes including transpiration, canopy solar transmission and snow interception, subcanopy wind regimes, soil infiltration, forest energy storage and snow surface albedo. One of the more important causes of conifer tree death is bark beetle infestation, which in some instances will kill nearly all of the canopy trees within forest stands. Since 1996, an ongoing outbreak of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) has caused widespread mortality across more than 600,000 km² of coniferous forests in western North America, including numerous Rocky Mountain headwaters catchments with high rates of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) mortality from mountain pin beetle (Dendroctonous ponderosae) infestations. Few empirical studies have documented the effects of MPB infestations on hydrologic processes, and little is known about the direction and magnitude of changes in water yield and timing of runoff due to insect‐induced tree death. Here, we review and synthesize existing research and provide new results quantifying the effects of beetle infestations on canopy structure, snow interception and transmission to create a conceptual model of the hydrologic effects of MPB‐induced lodgepole pine death during different stages of mortality. We identify the primary hydrologic processes operating in living forest stands, stands in multiple stages of death and long‐dead stands undergoing regeneration and estimate the direction of change in new water yield. This conceptual model is intended to identify avenues for future research efforts. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sources and biodegradability of dissolved organic matter in two headwater peatland catchments at the Marcell Experimental Forest,northern Minnesota,USA

Where they are present in catchments, peatlands are a dominant source of dissolved organic matter (DOM) to surrounding waterways due, in part, to high production rates. Despite the preponderance of peatlands in northern latitudes and expected peatland vulnerability to climate change, little is known about peatland DOM degradation relative to a more comprehensive understanding of degradation when DOM is sourced from upland-dominated catchments. We compared DOM biodegradability of various sources of stream water in two catchments having peatlands (22%–33% of the area) surrounded by upland forests (70%–90% of the area, either deciduous or coniferous). We measured total organic carbon (TOC), and biodegradable dissolved organic carbon concentrations; bacterial respiration rates; streamflow; and upland runoff during and after snowmelt (March to June, 2009–2011). We also explored if DOM in upland runoff stimulated biodegradation of peatland-derived DOM (i.e., a priming effect), and if forest cover type affected DOM biodegradability. As expected, the peatlands were the largest sources of both water (72%–80%) and TOC (92%–96%) to the streams although more area in each catchment was in uplands (70%–90%). Several results were unexpected, yet revealing: (1) DOM from peatlands sometimes had the same biodegradability as DOM from uplands, (2) upland sources of DOM had negligible effects on biodegradability in the peatland and downstream, and (3) upland deciduous cover did not yield more degradable DOM than conifer cover. The most pronounced effect of upland runoff was dilution of downstream TOC concentrations when there was upland runoff. Overall, the effects of upland DOM may have been negligible due to the overriding effect of the large amount of biodegradable DOM that originated in bogs. This research highlights that peatland-sourced DOM has important effects on downstream DOM biodegradability even in catchments where upland area is substantially larger than peatland area.     

Forests and water in South America

South America is experiencing rapid change in forest cover, of both native and planted forest. Forest cover loss is primarily attributable to fire, logging, and conversion of native forest to agriculture, pasture, and forest plantations, and types of change vary within and among the many diverse types of forests in South America. Major changes in forest cover and growing policy concerns underscore an urgent need for research on sustainable forest management and water ecosystem services in South America. Differences in land ownership and management objectives create trade‐offs between wood production and water ecosystem services from forests. Work is needed to quantify how forest change and management affect ecosystem services, such as wood production versus water provision. Current scientific understanding of forest management effects on water ecosystem services in South America has important limitations, including a scarcity of long‐term records and few long‐term integrated watershed studies. Industry, government, universities, and local communities should collaborate on integrated applied studies of forests and water. Data archiving and publically available data are required. The creation of national networks and a multi‐country South America network to identify and implement common water research protocols, share results, and explore their implications would promote common and well‐supported policies. Hydrologists working in South America are well placed to tackle the challenges and opportunities for collaborative research that will maintain the intrinsic values and water ecosystem services provided by South America's forests.     

Organically Bound Nutrients in Dissolved Organic Matter Fractions in Seepage and Pore Water of Weakly Developed Forest Soils

Previous field and laboratory studies showed that organically bound nutrients can contribute largely to the export of N, P, and S from soil into aquatic systems. One possible determinant for the losses of dissolved organic nutrients leaving the soil environment could be their distribution between dissolved organic matter (DOM) fractions of different mobility in soil. To elucidate the potential influence of DOM fractions under varying flow conditions on the vertical translocation of organically bound nutrients, we determined the concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic C (DOC) and nutrients (DON, DOP, DOS) in soil water under a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and a European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest. We sampled seepage water from the organic forest floor layer and the mineral subsoil using zero‐tension lysimeters and soil pore water using tension lysimeters and suction cups. DOM in soil water was fractionated into hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds by XAD‐8 at pH 2. We found that the organic forest floor layers were large sources for DOC, DON, DOP, and DOS. The dissolved organic nutrients were mainly concentrated in the hydrophilic DOM fraction which proved to be more mobile in mineral soil pore water than the hydrophobic one. Consequently, the concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic nutrients decreased less with depth than those of DOC. Concentrations as well as fluxes in subsoil pore water of DOC and dissolved organic nutrients in the studied weakly developed soils were high as compared with literature data on deeply developed forest soils. Under conditions of rapid water flow through the strongly structured mineral soil at the beech site, almost no retention of DOM took place and thus the influence of the distribution of organically bound nutrients between the DOM fractions on the export of DON, DOP, and DOS was negligible.     

Short term fluctuations in dissolved organic matter concentrations in streamflow draining a forested watershed and their relation to the catchment budget

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) concentrations in throughfall, throughflow, and runoff were recorded in a small (95 ha) woodland catchment in North Warwickshire for a period of eight weeks following a prolonged dry spell. DOM is shown to be positively related to stream discharge over the sampling period, although distinctive flushing effects were identified. The net contribution of DOM to total dissolved solids load carried in the river was only 2.4 per cent, and represented significantly less than published carbon losses by mineralization of soil organic matter. Throughfall inputs were some 100 times higher than streamflow outputs from the catchment.     

Hydrological regimes in a tropical valley of New Caledonia (SW Pacific): Impacts of wildfires and invasive fauna

In New Caledonia wildfires and invasive mammals (deer and wild pigs) constitute the major agents of land surface degradation. Our study reveals the linkage between land cover and water balance on the northeast coast of New Caledonia (2400 mm annual rainfall) located on a micaschist basement. The hydrological regime of characteristic and representative land surfaces is assessed using a 1-year record from three 100 m² plots each, located in a forest area degraded by an invasive fauna, in a woody savannah which is regularly burned, and in a healthy forest area. The three plots present highly contrasting hydrological regimes, with annual and maximum runoff/rain ratios during a rain event of, respectively, 0.82, 0.16, 0.03, and 2.7, 0.7, 0.2, for the degraded forest, the savannah and the healthy forest. Such results suggest that subsurface flow originating from the contributing area above the degraded forest plot should exfiltrate inside the plot. A conceptual model for the degraded forest plot shows that water exfiltrating inside the plot represents 61% of the observed runoff. In savannahs, water should mainly be transferred downstream by subsurface flow within a thick organic soil layer limited by an impervious clay layer at a 20–30 cm depth. Savannahs are generally located above forests and generate the transfer of rainwater to downslope forests. Exfiltration into the forests can be the result of this transfer and depends on the thickness and permeability of the forest topsoils and on topographic gradients. Water exfiltration in forest areas highly degraded by pigs and deer enhances erosion and increases further degradation. It probably also limits percolation in the areas located downstream by increasing the amount of superficial runoff concentrated in gullies.     

三峡库区土地利用对河流溶解性有机质的多时空尺度影响

三峡库区拥有目前世界上规模最大的水利枢纽工程,自投入使用以来,为长江流域提供了丰富的水源及电力,促进了经济的发展,但同时也对该区域的生态环境造成了严重的冲击。澎溪河流域作为三峡库区长江流域干流的典型回水区和消落带,是众多学者研究三峡库区生态环境变化的重点区域。为探究不同时空尺度下土地利用对河流溶解性有机质（DOM）的影响,以澎溪河流域为研究对象,基于紫外-可见光谱分析和三维荧光光谱矩阵-平行因子分析,结合河段缓冲区、河岸带缓冲区及子流域3种空间尺度的二级土地利用类型,解析了旱雨季水体DOM的组成及来源特征,并采用相关分析和冗余分析方法探讨了3种空间尺度下土地利用方式对旱雨季水体DOM的多时空尺度影响。结果表明：（1）旱季水体DOM荧光组分以陆源类腐殖质所占比例更大,雨季水体DOM荧光组分以富里酸贡献为主。（2）流域内陆源输入和内源产生对水体DOM丰度均有贡献,雨季较旱季水体DOM的陆源性更强,自生源特征较弱。（3）土地利用在雨季和子流域尺度下对水体DOM的影响更显著,其中,雨季子流域尺度下,土地利用指数对水体DOM参数的解释率为90.35%。（4）不同土地利用方式对水体DOM产生的影响...     

Evaluation of forest disturbance legacy effects on dissolved organic matter characteristics in streams at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest,New Hampshire

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) source and composition are critical drivers of its reactivity, impact microbial food webs and influence ecosystem functions. It is believed that DOM composition and abundance represent an integrated signal derived from the surrounding watershed. Recent studies have shown that land-use may have a long-term effect on DOM composition. Methods for characterizing DOM, such as those that measure the optical properties and size of the molecules, are increasingly recognized as valuable tools for assessing DOM sources, cycling, and reactivity. In this study we measured DOM optical properties and molecular weight determinations to evaluate whether the legacy of forest disturbance alters the amount and composition of stream DOM. Differences in DOM quantity and composition due to vegetation type and to a greater extent, wetland influence, were more pronounced than effects due to disturbance. Our results suggest that excitation-emission matrix fluorescence with parallel factor analysis is a more sensitive metric of disturbance than the other methods evaluated. Analyses showed that streams draining watersheds that have been clearcut had lower dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations and higher microbially-derived and protein-like fluorescence features compared to reference streams. DOM optical properties in a watershed amended with calcium, were not significantly different than reference watersheds, but had higher concentrations of DOC. Collectively these results improve our understanding of how the legacy of forest disturbances and natural landscape characteristics affect the quantity and chemical composition of DOM in headwater streams, having implications for stream water quality and carbon cycling.     

Effects of forest harvesting on the occurrence of landslides and debris flows in steep terrain of central Japan

Landslides and debris flows associated with forest harvesting can cause much destruction and the influence of the timing of harvesting on these mass wasting processes therefore needs to be assessed in order to protect aquatic ecosystems and develop improved strategies for disaster prevention. We examined the effects of forest harvesting on the frequency of landslides and debris flows in the Sanko catchment (central Japan) using nine aerial photo periods covering 1964 to 2003. These photographs showed a mosaic of different forest ages attributable to the rotational management in this area since 1912. Geology and slope gradient are rather uniformly distributed in the Sanko catchment, facilitating assessment of forest harvesting effects on mass wasting without complication of other factors. Trends of new landslides and debris flows correspond to changes in slope stability explained by root strength decay and recovery; the direct impact of clearcutting on landslide occurrence was greatest in forest stands that were clearcut 1 to 10 yr earlier with progressively lesser impacts continuing up to 25 yr after harvesting. Sediment supply rate from landslides in forests clearcut 1 to 10 yr earlier was about 10‐fold higher than in control sites. Total landslide volume in forest stands clearcut 0 to 25 yr earlier was 5·8 × 10³ m³ km^?2 compared with 1·3 × 10³ m³ km^?2 in clearcuts >25 yr, indicating a fourfold increase compared with control sites during the period when harvesting affected slope stability. Because landslide scars continue to produce sediment after initial failure, sediment supply from landslides continues for 45 yr in the Sanko catchment. To estimate the effect of forest harvesting and subsequent regeneration on the occurrence of mass wasting in other regions, changes in root strength caused by decay and recovery of roots should be investigated for various species and environmental conditions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Advances in environmental behaviors and effects of dissolved organic matter in aquatic ecosystems

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a group of compounds that have complex chemical structures and multiple interactions with their surrounding materials. More than one trillion tons of DOM are stocked in the world’s aquatic ecosystems. DOM is a very important part of aquatic ecosystem productivity and plays a crucial role in global carbon cycling. DOM has rich environmental behaviors and effects such as influencing the bioavailability of contaminants, serving as an important inducer of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and protecting aquatic organisms from the harm of dangerous ultraviolet radiation. There have been many systematic studies on the composition, structure, and sources of DOM because such studies are much easier to conduct than studies on the environmental behaviors and effects of DOM. Due to many factors, the research systems of DOM’s environmental behaviors and effects are still being developed and have become a hotspot of environmental science. This review paper focuses on some critical progress, problems, and trends of DOM’s environmental behaviors and effects in aquatic ecosystems, including mutual exchange mechanisms between DOM and particulate organic matter (POM) with influencing factors, photochemical behaviors of DOM especially inducing ROS, binding interactions between DOM and anthropogenic organic contaminants (AOC), interactions between DOM and microorganisms, effects of DOM on pollutants’ bioavailability, ecotoxicity, and ecological risks. Hopefully, this paper will contribute to a more systematic understanding of the DOM environmental behaviors and effects and to promoting further relevant studies.     

High-frequency monitoring of hydrological and biogeochemical fluxes in forested catchments of southern Chile

The variability of rainfall-dependent streamflow at catchment scale modulates many ecosystem processes in wet temperate forests. Runoff in small mountain catchments is characterized by a quick response to rainfall pulses which affects biogeochemical fluxes to all downstream systems. In wet-temperate climates, water erosion is the most important natural factor driving downstream soil and nutrient losses from upland ecosystems. Most hydrochemical studies have focused on water flux measurements at hourly scales, along with weekly or monthly samples for water chemistry. Here, we assessed how water and element flows from broad-leaved, evergreen forested catchments in southwestern South America, are influenced by different successional stages, quantifying runoff, sediment transport and nutrient fluxes during hourly rainfall events of different intensities. Hydrograph comparisons among different successional stages indicated that forested catchments differed in their responses to high intensity rainfall, with greater runoff in areas covered by secondary forests (SF), compared to old-growth forest cover (OG) and dense scrub vegetation (CH). Further, throughfall water was greatly nutrient enriched for all forest types. Suspended sediment loads varied between successional stages. SF catchments exported 455 kg of sediments per ha, followed by OG with 91 kg/ha and CH with 14 kg/ha, corresponding to 11 rainfall events measured from December 2013 to April 2014. Total nitrogen (TN) and phosphorus (TP) concentrations in stream water also varied with rainfall intensity. In seven rainfall events sampled during the study period, CH catchments exported less nutrients (46 kg/ha TN and 7 kg/ha TP) than SF catchments (718 kg/ha TN and 107 kg/ha TP), while OG catchments exported intermediate sediment loads (201 kg/ha TN and 23 kg/ha TP). Further, we found significant effects of successional stage attributes (vegetation structure and soil physical properties) and catchment morphometry on runoff and sediment concentrations, and greater nutrients retention in OG and CH catchments. We conclude that in these southern hemisphere, broad-leaved evergreen temperate forests, hydrological processes are driven by multiple interacting phenomena, including climate, vegetation, soils, topography, and disturbance history.     

A century of change: Reconstructing the biogeochemical history of Hubbard Brook

Ecosystems constantly adjust to altered biogeochemical inputs, changes in vegetation and climate, and previous physical disturbances. Such disturbances create overlapping ‘biogeochemical legacies’ affecting modern nutrient mass balances. To understand how ‘legacies’ affected watershed-ecosystem (WEC) biogeochemistry during five decades of studies within the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF), we extended biogeochemical trends and hydrologic fluxes back to 1900 to provide an historical framework for our long-term studies. This reconstruction showed acid rain peaking at HBEF in the late 1960s-early 1970s near the beginning of the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study (HBES). The long-term, parabolic arc in acid inputs to HBEF generated a corresponding arc in the ionic strength of stream water, with acid inputs generating increased losses of H⁺ and soil base cations between 1963 and 1969 and then decreased losses after 1970. Nitrate release after disturbance is coupled with previous N-deposition and storage, biological uptake, and hydrology. Sulfur was stored in soils from decades of acid deposition but is now nearly depleted. Total exports of base cations from the soil exchange pool represent one of the largest disturbances to forest and associated aquatic ecosystems at the HBEF since the Pleistocene glaciation. Because precipitation inputs of base cations currently are extremely small, such losses can only be replaced through the slow process of mineral weathering. Thus, the chemistry of stream water is extremely dilute and likely to become even more dilute than pre-Industrial Revolution estimates. The importance of calculating chemical fluxes is clearly demonstrated in reconstruction of acid rain impacts during the pre-measurement period. The aggregate impact of acid rain on WEC exports is far larger than historical forest harvest effects, and even larger than the most severe deforestation experiment (Watershed 2) at HBEF. A century of acid rain had a calcium stripping impact equivalent to two W2 experiments involving complete deforestation and herbicide applications.     

铁（氢）氧化物介导的溶解性有机质、无机磷的固定及相互作用研究进展

铁(氢)氧化物介导的溶解性有机质(DOM)和无机磷(DIP)的固定在水生态系统中普遍存在,对碳、磷元素的生物地球化学循环有重要的影响.铁(氢)氧化物主要通过吸附和共沉淀两种过程固定DOM和DIP,且铁(氢)氧化物、DOM和DIP三者存在复杂的相互作用.本文主要从铁(氢)氧化物对DOM和DIP的固定,铁(氢)氧化物、DOM和DIP之间的相互影响等方面综述了相关研究进展,梳理了铁(氢)氧化物、DOM和DIP在吸附和共沉淀过程中的相互作用机制与影响因素.DOM的存在会通过占据铁(氢)氧化物表面吸附点位、络合、抑制铁水解沉淀等途径影响铁(氢)氧化物对DIP的固定;且不同机制与DOM的不同性质如分子大小、芳香组分、羧基官能团含量等有关.而DIP的存在会改变铁(氢)氧化物对DOM的固定分馏过程,改变溶液中DOM的组分和性质.在明晰三者相互作用基础上,探讨了铁(氢)氧化物介导的DOM和DIP的固定过程对湖泊内源磷释放和碳埋藏的可能影响,并对未来的研究方向进行了展望.     

Photochemical degradation of dissolved organic matter from streams in the western Lake Superior watershed

The input and fate of dissolved organic matter (DOM) can have important consequences for coastal zone productivity in large lakes and oceans. Chromophoric DOM (CDOM) is often delivered to coastal zones from rivers and streams and affects light penetration in a water column. CDOM can protect biota from damaging ultraviolet (UV) light by acting as sunscreen, resulting in increased ecosystem productivity. Alternatively, CDOM can decrease ecosystem productivity by absorbing light needed for photosynthesis and forming photoreaction products that are harmful to coastal zone biota. Increased urbanization of watersheds and seasonal differences in weather patterns change the delivery pathways, reactivity, input, and energy flow of DOM (and its CDOM component) into aquatic systems. This study investigated the effects of watershed and season on the concentrations and potential photodegradation of stream-derived DOM in Lake Superior tributaries, chosen to be geographically and geologically similar but differing in land use. Organic carbon analysis, UV–Visible spectrophotometry, and terrestrial (land use) analysis were used to investigate differences among samples and sample treatments. The major differences in DOM concentration and photochemical response appeared seasonal rather than site specific, with snow-melt samples showing stronger and more consistent changes in UV–Visible parameters while base-flow samples showed stronger and more consistent losses in DOC.