Morphometric Controls and Basin Response in The Cascade Mountains

Morphometric variables associated with 36 debris torrent, 78 snow avalanche, 45 composite debris torrent and snow avalanche and 14 streamflow basins in the Cascade Mountains of southwestern British Columbia, Canada are examined. The results show significant statistical differences in top and bottom elevations, relief, channel length and gradient, basin area, fan gradient and area, and basin ruggedness between snow avalanche basins and the two basin types affected by debris torrents, reflecting the very different nature of these processes. Only top and bottom elevations and fan area differ significantly between debris torrent and debris torrent-snow avalanche basins, implying that the latter are probably debris torrent basins in origin. As many as six morphometric variables are significantly different between streamflow basins and the other basin types, allowing the former to be differentiated despite their small, steep character. Discriminant analysis indicates that bottom elevation and channel or path gradient are the best variables for classifying the four basin types by process. Generally strong correlations exist between basin area on the one hand and relief, channel length and channel gradient on the other in debris torrent, debris torrent-snow avalanche, and streamflow basins. Fan gradient and area are, however, weakly or modestly correlated with basin area or ruggedness. No such morphometric relations are present in snow avalanche basins. The results of this study also indicate that in debris torrent-prone basins the fan gradient and Melton's R have identifiable lower thresholds while basin area has an upper threshold, but use of these thresholds for identification of debris torrent hazard is complicated by overlapping thresholds for streamflow basins.     

Estimation of Areal Soil Moisture by use of Terrain Data

In this study measured soil moisture is related to primary and secondary topographical attributes within two small-scale drainage basins. The study sites are the Buddby and the Dansarhllarna drainage basins within the NOPEX area. The primary topographic attributes slope, aspect, plan and profile curvature, and the secondary topographic attribute, the wetness index, are derived from a 5 m resolution digital elevation model. The relationship with measured soil moisture in the Buddby basin is investigated by linear regression analysis. Based on mean plot measurements for the whole measurement period two different models were established, resulting in a high R ² value. The best model was achieved with slope, profile curvature and aspect as regression variables. The models obtained were further used to regionalise the results into basin scale at both Buddby and Dansarhällarna. This demonstrated a soil moisture pattern different from the pattern resulting from the wetness index. Finally, models were established, based on two different dates of field campaigns. The results showed a good agreement with the observed soil moisture values, and a higher R ² value was obtained when using the wetness index for the medium wet period compared to the wettest period. Further analysis is needed to verify the physical significance of the results and their suitability for hydrological modelling.     

基于GIS的斜坡单元划分方法改进与实现

斜坡单元已广泛应用于滑坡易发性制图和地质灾害评价。然而在山间盆地或大型宽谷处,常规方法划分出的斜坡单元与地貌背景难以匹配。依据高程及其衍生变量的基本形态系统和曲率的流域分割原理,基于ArcGIS技术,通过叠加曲率和反转曲率的流域边界,改进了斜坡单元划分方法。结果表明：与常规方法相比,改进方法不仅能够使用山脊线和山谷线以划分斜坡单元,还能利用台地边界和宽谷边界以分割水平地表与倾斜地表;划分出的单元大小相对均匀,单元形状总体介于圆形和正三角形之间。对于水平成分较多的地区,如黄土塬区和水库库区,该方法与传统方法相比,具有较好的应用前景。     

基于CA的昆嵛山腮扁叶蜂传播的空间模拟

元胞自动机CA（Cellular Automaton）与地理信息系统（GIS）的集成弥补了GIS在时空分析和时空演化方面的不足,为昆虫种群生态学的研究提供了新的手段。利用DEM提取地形因子,使用统计分析分析了昆嵛山腮扁叶蜂与林分因子、立地因子之间的关系。主要取得了腮扁叶蜂虫口密度与立地因子关系密切,并推导出了腮扁叶蜂的虫口密度与海拔、坡度、坡向、坡位的逐步逻辑回归数学模型。以数学模型结合空间自相关函数建立时空预测模型作为转换规则,以地理信息系统为平台利用元胞自动机模型模拟腮扁叶蜂传播,预测结果给出了昆嵛山腮扁叶蜂密度分布的结果,给防治决策提供了方便。     

Geomorphometric feature analysis using morphometric parameterization and artificial neural networks

This paper presents a semi-automatic method using an unsupervised neural network to analyze geomorphometric features as landform elements. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) provided detailed digital elevation models (DEMs) for all land masses between 60°N and 57°S. Exploiting these data for recognition and extraction of geomorphometric features is a challenging task. Results obtained with two methods, Wood's morphometric parameterization and the Self Organizing Map (SOM), are presented in this paper.Four morphometric parameters (slope, minimum curvature, maximum curvature and cross-sectional curvature) were derived by fitting a bivariate quadratic surface with a window size of 5 by 5 to the SRTM DEM. These parameters were then used as input to the two methods. Wood's morphometric parameterization provides point-based features (peak, pit and pass), line-based features (channel and ridge) and area-based features (planar). Since point-based features are defined as having a very small slope when their neighbors are considered, two tolerance values (slope tolerance and curvature tolerance) are introduced. Selection of suitable values for the tolerance parameters is crucial for obtaining useful results.The SOM as an unsupervised neural network algorithm is employed for the classification of the same morphometric parameters into ten classes characterized by morphometric position (crest, channel, ridge and plan area) subdivided by slope ranges. These terrain features are generic landform element and can be used to improve mapping and modeling of soils, vegetation, and land use, as well as ecological, hydrological and geomorphological features. These landform elements are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface at the given resolution. The result showed that the SOM is an efficient scalable tool for analyzing geomorphometric features as meaningful landform elements, and uses the full potential of morphometric characteristics.     

地形复杂度对坡度坡向的影响

采用三阶不带权差分算法，研究了地形复杂度与坡度坡向的关系，澄清了目前关于坡度坡向误差空间分布的矛盾观点，并分别在凹向椭球和高斯合成曲面数学模型曲面DEM上对其进行验证。通过研究得出：①坡度、坡向误差与坡度值正相关；②坡度坡向误差主要分布在平坦地区；③坡向误差较坡度误差对DEM高程数据误差敏感，较小的DEM误差引起较大的坡向误差。     

基于GIS的山洪灾害风险区划

通过探讨应用地理信息系统技术编制山洪灾害风险区划图的方法。以1:25万地理底图为基础,对影响山洪形成与泛滥的地形坡度、暴雨天数、河网缓冲区、标准面积洪峰流量、泥石流分布密度和洪灾历史统计六项因子进行了分析和叠合评价,完成了红河流域的山洪灾害危险评价图。以人口密度、房屋资产、耕地百分比、单位面积工农业产值作为指标进行了易损性分析,并借助于GIS分析工具,将危险评价图与易损性图进行叠加分析,完成了红河流域的山洪灾害风险区划图。区划结果表明GIS方法能够有效地对影响山洪形成与泛滥的因子数据层进行空间集成分析。该风险区划图可通过对山洪易泛区的不同风险地带的土地利用规划的决策而减轻山洪灾害;此外,也为山洪易泛区的居民提供有关山洪风险信息。     

Event sedimentation in low‐latitude deep‐water carbonate basins,Anegada passage,northeast Caribbean

The Virgin Islands and Whiting basins in the Northeast Caribbean are deep, structurally controlled depocentres partially bound by shallow‐water carbonate platforms. Closed basins such as these are thought to document earthquake and hurricane events through the accumulation of event layers such as debris flow and turbidity current deposits and the internal deformation of deposited material. Event layers in the Virgin Islands and Whiting basins are predominantly thin and discontinuous, containing varying amounts of reef‐ and slope‐derived material. Three turbidites/sandy intervals in the upper 2 m of sediment in the eastern Virgin Islands Basin were deposited between ca. 2000 and 13 600 years ago, but do not extend across the basin. In the central and western Virgin Islands Basin, a structureless clay‐rich interval is interpreted to be a unifite. Within the Whiting Basin, several discontinuous turbidites and other sand‐rich intervals are primarily deposited in base of slope fans. The youngest of these turbidites is ca. 2600 years old. Sediment accumulation in these basins is low (<0.1 mm year^?1) for basin adjacent to carbonate platform, possibly due to limited sediment input during highstand sea‐level conditions, sediment trapping and/or cohesive basin walls. We find no evidence of recent sediment transport (turbidites or debris flows) or sediment deformation that can be attributed to the ca. M7.2 1867 Virgin Islands earthquake whose epicentre was located on the north wall of the Virgin Islands Basin or to recent hurricanes that have impacted the region. The lack of significant appreciable pebble or greater size carbonate material in any of the available cores suggests that submarine landslide and basin‐wide blocky debris flows have not been a significant mechanism of basin margin modification in the last several thousand years. Thus, basins such as those described here may be poor recorders of past natural hazards, but may provide a long‐term record of past oceanographic conditions in ocean passages.     

Role of landscape parameters in riverine run-off,and sediment and organic matter yield on Disko Island,West Greenland

Measurements of discharge and suspended sediment and organic matter yield from nine different drainage basins on the island Disko in central West Greenland were carried out in the period 19–30 July 1997. A series of landscape properties (glacier cover, altitude, slope, aspect and vegetation cover) were measured for each drainage basin from a digital elevation model and a satellite image. Principal Component Analysis and regression statistics have been used to examine which landscape parameters dominate the measured discharges and yields. It is concluded that differences in suspended sediment and organic matter yield between the drainage basins can be explained by the measured morphometric properties while differences in water run-off can not. Glacier cover percentage and percent area above 800 m a.s.l. were the most important parameters influencing suspended sediment and organic matter yield in the drainage basins on Disko during the study period.     

地形信息对确定DEM适宜分辨率的影响

分辨率会直接影响基于栅格数字高程模型（DEM）的数字地形分析结果,因此在实际应用中,需要选择适宜的DEM分辨率。目前采取的基本方法,基于某种地形信息定量刻画尺度效应曲线,从而确定DEM适宜分辨率,但对于采用不同地形信息时所产生的影响尚缺乏研究。本文针对该方法中通常采用的坡度、剖面曲率、水平曲率等3 种地形信息,每种地形信息提取时,分别使用两种不同的常用算法,在3 个不同地形特征的研究区中,逐一计算其在不同分辨率下的局部方差均值,以刻画尺度效应曲线,确定相应的DEM适宜分辨率,并进行对比分析。结果表明：① 采用剖面曲率或水平曲率所得适宜分辨率结果基本相同,但采用坡度所得出的适宜分辨率结果则有明显差别,后者所得的适宜分辨率更粗;② 采用不同地形信息时,越是在平缓地形为主的研究区,所得的适宜分辨率结果越相近,在复合地形特征的研究区所得到的适宜分辨率区间均明显较宽;③ 地形属性计算时所用的算法对适宜分辨率结果的影响不明显。     

Using phytogeomorphology, cartography and GIS to explain forest site productivity expressed as tree height in southern and central Finland

Using geomorphological knowledge, spatial data and GIS methods, one can obtain phytogeomorphological site variables describing interactions between landforms and vegetation. We used 15 site variables derived from maps to explain forest site productivity in southern and central Finland expressed as dominant height of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) with ages of 30–110 years. These site variables were grouped into two: Group 1 with seven variables describing geographical conditions of sites including climate, and Group 2 with eight variables describing local morphometric and soil properties. We calculated slope and aspect from a 25 × 25 m DEM. The catchment area, calcium content in soil, length of the growing season, radiation index, sea index, lake index, past highest shoreline and total annual temperature sum with threshold + 5 °C were also obtained. Then we classified the landforms of 688 sample plots into four major types and 15 sub-types. We applied regression analysis to explain the tree height as a function of the tree age and the phytogeomorphological site variables. When the tree height was explained with the tree age and the Group 1 variables, the remaining standard error of the model was 16.6–17.9%. When the Group 2 variables were added to the analysis, the standard error decreased slightly. The most significant variables were the temperature sum, latitude coordinate and length of the growing season. Other significant variables were elevation, slope and aspect. The major landform types, sub-types and watershed area did not explain the tree height. Furthermore, if the forest site types determined in the field were included, the remaining standard error decreased by ca. 2%, showing the importance of field information.     

Computation of the third‐order partial derivatives from a digital elevation model

Loci of extreme curvature of the topographic surface may be defined by the derivation function (T) depending on the first‐, second‐, and third‐order partial derivatives of elevation. The loci may partially describe ridge and thalweg lines. The first‐ and second‐order partial derivatives are commonly calculated from a digital elevation model (DEM) by fitting the second‐order polynomial to a 3×3 window. This approach cannot be used to compute the third‐order partial derivatives and T. We deduced formulae to estimate the first‐, second‐, and third‐order partial derivatives from a DEM fitting the third‐order polynomial to a 5×5 window. The polynomial is approximated to elevation values of the window. This leads to a local denoising that may enhance calculations. Under the same grid size of a DEM and root mean square error (RMSE) of elevation, calculation of the second‐order partial derivatives by the method developed results in significantly lower RMSE of the derivatives than that using the second‐order polynomial and the 3×3 window. An RMSE expression for the derivation function is deduced. The method proposed can be applied to derive any local topographic variable, such as slope gradient, aspect, curvatures, and T. Treatment of a DEM by the method developed demonstrated that T mapping may not substitute regional logistic algorithms to detect ridge/thalweg networks. However, the third‐order partial derivatives of elevation can be used in digital terrain analysis, particularly, in landform classifications.     

基于GIS的土壤全氮空间分布估算——以江西省兴国县为例

运用GIS的空间分析技术和DEM,在区域范围内,可以表征基于母岩和地形因子的土壤-景观模型。本次研究根据兴国县151个样点数据,分析TN和地形因子的相关关系,建立回归模型,进行估算。结果表明:表层土壤中TN含量平均值为1.06g/kg,千枚岩发育的土壤中TN的平均含量最高,为1.35g/kg ;砂页岩发育的土壤中TN的平均含量最低,为0.88g/kg 。空间分布上:TN含量在0.5g/kg~1.0g/kg的面积最大,为1580km²,TN含量在2.0g/kg以上的面积最小,为127km²。地形变量中坡向对TN含量影响最大,TN含量和母岩、海拔、坡向存在着正相关关系,坡度和TN含量的相关关系不明显。利用回归分析模型和DEM(30m×30m),估算TN的空间分布,R²为0.637。     

Lithologic control of debris torrent occurrence

A field-based investigation into the frequency and magnitude of debris torrent systems reveals that lithology controls the spatial and temporal occurrence of debris torrents in the Tsitika Watershed, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. We identified 125 debris torrent systems in the watershed; for half these basins we used dendrochronology, historical air photographs, and field surveys to estimate debris torrent frequency and magnitude for a 30 year period. We find that the volcaniclastic half of the watershed contains more than twice as many debris torrent systems, in which debris torrents occur over seven times more frequently, and the deposits have a higher rate of delivery of sediment to the mainstem river than the intrusive half. Lithologic differences in weathering rates, weathering product grain size, and rock texture can explain the observed differences in debris torrent behaviour. Because debris torrents are the main sediment transport path from hilltop to valley bottom in the region, these results confirm an important lithologic control on regional sediment transport. While the exact numbers are uncertain, we estimate that the sediment flux of volcaniclastic debris torrents in the watershed is five times higher than that of the intrusive debris torrents.     

澜沧江流域地理信息处理与地貌形态特征分析

地貌作为自然环境的重要组成要素,它对地表生态环境及各种自然资源的形成与分布具有重要作用。本研究针对澜沧江流域特殊的自然地理环境,应用GIS与遥感图像处理技术方法,通过对澜沧江流域1∶25万数字高程模型数据与地表覆盖遥感数据进行处理,提取流域有关坡度、坡向、地形起伏度等地貌特征要素,并进行定位表达与特征统计分析,结果获得了对流域地貌特征的定位与定量化的总体认识,研究成果直接为澜沧江流域水、土、生物、矿产等资源的综合开发利用,特别是为流域水资源的分配及其综合开发利用研究提供空间信息基础平台。     

Surface Variability of Alluvial Fans Generated by Disparate Processes,Eastern Death Valley,CA

This study explores the surface variability of alluvial fans from digital elevations model (DEM) derivatives generated from 1-m planimetric resolution airborne laser swath mapping data. Channel and interfluve dimensions of debris flow (DF) fans and fans generated from predominantly fluvial flows and some older debris flows (mixed flow [MF]) are extracted with the aid of a planimetric curvature classification. Significant differences are identified between the fan surface topography of DF and MF fans. MF fans tend to have smaller channel and interfluve widths, have smaller elevation differences between the crest of the interfluve and channel, and are more dissected than DF fans. The morphometric differences between the two fan classes can be explained by differences in the primary processes that develop the surficial features, but also the preponderance for secondary erosional processes acting on the MF fans.     

泥石流流域集水区面积限值与一级水系数目关系

文章利用ArcInfo的水文分析功能,从不同区域的三条典型泥石流沟的数字高程模型中提取出不同限值下的水系,然后研究了不同集水区面积下限导致的流域水系细节层次的变化,发现一级水系的数目和集水区面积下限成近似于反比的关系,而反比关系的比例系数只与流域面积有关。这种关系反映了泥石流流域的水系在空间尺度变换下的某种自相似性,也说明了泥石流流域在相当宽的空间尺度范围内一级子流域的物质活动能力是一定的。     

Torrent risk zonation in the Upstream Red River Basin based on GIS

This paper explores the methodology for compiling the torrent hazard and risk zonation map by means of GIS technique for the Red River Basin in Yunnan province of China, where is prone to torrent. Based on a 1:250,000 scale digital map, six factors including slope angle, rainstorm days, buffer of river channels, maximum runoff discharge of standard area, debris flow distribution density and flood disaster history were analyzed and superimposed to create the torrent risk evaluation map. Population density, farmland percentage, house property, and GDP as indexes accounting for torrent hazards were analyzed in terms of vulnerability mapping. Torrent risk zonation by means of GIS was overlaid on the two data layers of hazard and vulnerability. Then each grid unit with a resolution of 500 m × 500 m was divided into four categories of the risk: extremely high, high, moderate and low. Finally the same level risk was combined into a confirmed zone, which represents torrent risk of the study area. The risk evaluation result in the upper Red River Basin shows that the extremely high risk area of 13,150 km2 takes up 17.9% of the total inundated area, the high risk area of 33,783 km2 is 45.9%, the moderate risk area of 18,563 km2 is 25.2% and the low risk area of 8115 km2 is 11.0%.     

侯马盆地冲积扇及其流域地貌发育规律

根据从DEM数据中提取的侯马盆地冲积扇及其流域的多项地貌指标,分析了各地貌指标的空间分布规律,并通过地貌指标的空间分布曲线与山前地形高程曲线形态的对比以及地貌指标相关性分析来揭示冲积扇及其流域地貌的发育规律。结果表明,在侯马盆地相对隆起部位的冲积扇及其流域的地貌指标与在盆地凹陷部位的冲积扇及其流域的地貌指标有较大差异;流域地貌指标的空间分布受到盆地边界断层构造活动性的影响;冲积扇的发育主要受到流域规模、山前构造活动以及盆地基准面等多种因素共同的影响;流域内岩性的差异不是造成研究区域内冲积扇地貌差异的主要因素。     

The morphometric and stratigraphic framework for estimates of debris flow incidence in the North Cascades foothills, Washington State, USA

Active debris flow fans in the North Cascade Foothills of Washington State constitute a natural hazard of importance to land managers, private property owners and personal security. In the absence of measurements of the sediment fluxes involved in debris flow events, a morphological-evolutionary systems approach, emphasizing stratigraphy, dating, fan morphology and debris flow basin morphometry, was used. Using the stratigraphic framework and 47 radiocarbon dates, frequency of occurrence and relative magnitudes of debris flow events have been estimated for three spatial scales of debris flow systems: the within-fan site scale (84 observations); the fan meso-scale (six observations) and the lumped fan, regional or macro-scale (one fan average and adjacent lake sediments). In order to characterize the morphometric framework, plots of basin area v. fan area, basin area v. fan gradient and the Melton ruggedness number v. fan gradient for the 12 debris flow basins were compared with those documented for semi-arid and paraglacial fans. Basin area to fan area ratios were generally consistent with the estimated level of debris flow activity during the Holocene as reported below. Terrain analysis of three of the most active debris flow basins revealed the variety of modes of slope failure and sediment production in the region.Micro-scale debris flow event systems indicated a range of recurrence intervals for large debris flows from 106−3645 years. The spatial variation of these rates across the fans was generally consistent with previously mapped hazard zones. At the fan meso-scale, the range of recurrence intervals for large debris flows was 273−1566 years and at the regional scale, the estimated recurrence interval of large debris flows was 874 years (with undetermined error bands) during the past 7290 years. Dated lake sediments from the adjacent Lake Whatcom gave recurrence intervals for large sediment producing events ranging from 481−557 years over the past 3900 years and clearly discernible sedimentation events in the lacustrine sediments had a recurrence interval of 67−78 years over that same period.