Assessment of diversity, distribution, conservation status and preparation of management plan for medicinal plants in the catchment area of parbati hydroelectric project stage — III in Northwestern Himalaya

The developmental activities, particularly the construction of hydroelectric projects are causing a great loss of biodiversity in the Indian Himalayan Region. The Himachal Pradesh, a part of IHR is well known for the development of hydroelectric projects. The Parbati H.E. Project is amongst the major projects of the State. The different stages of the project are all causing loss of biodiversity of the area. Stage III of the Parbati H.E. Project is a run of the river scheme on the Sainj River downstream of Power House of Parbati H.E. Project Stage II. The project shall utilize regulated discharge of Parbati H.E. Project Stage II and inflow of River Sainj for power generation, and has been contemplated as a peaking station operating in tandem with Stage II. The present study has been undertaken to see the impact of hydroelectric project on the biodiversity, particularly on medicinal plants. A total of 104 species of medicinal plants, belonging to different life forms, i.e., trees (23 spp.), shrubs (22 spp.), herbs (57 spp.) and ferns (2 spp.) were recorded. The species have been analyzed and studied for their distribution, classification, altitudinal zones, part (s) used, indigenous uses, nativity, endemism and rarity. DDifferent parts of these species, such as whole plants, roots (including rhizomes and tubers), leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems, barks, spikes, nuts and insect galls are used by the inhabitants for curing various diseases and ailments. 30 species are native to the Himalayan region, 9 species native to the Himalayan region and adjacent countries also and 65 species are non-natives. 9 species are near endemics. Considering the whole Himalaya as a biogeographic unit (sensu lato), the near endemics are endemic to the Himalaya. Among these species, Zanthoxylum armatum is categorized as Endangered and Valeriana wallichii as Vulnerable. Hedychium spicatum, Rhus javanica, Berberis lycium, Thalictrum foliolossum, Salvia lanata, Rubia cordifolia and Bergenia ligulata may be considered as threatened species due to their over exploitation for trade. 90 species are propagated by seeds, 8 species by seeds and rhizomes/roots/tubers, 4 species by seeds and cuttings, and 2 species by sori. A management plan for the cultivation and conservation of the medicinal plants in the dam submergence area, and the commercially viable medicinal plants with high value in the catchment area is suggested.     

Assessing Conservation Values of Forest Communities in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: Plant Diversity,Species Distribution and Endemicity

Present study has been conducted in a biodiversity rich Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve between 2000-3800 m in two different forest physiognomy holding sites to analyze the structure and composition of the forest communities including richness of native, non native and endemic species,and suggest conservation values at community and reserve level.A total of 60 sites were sampled and grouped in 11 and 8 communities for two representative sites Pindari-Sunderdhunga-Kafni(PSK) and Lata-Tolma-Phagti(LTP) respectively.From the sampled sites, 451 species(11.8%, 53 trees;17.71%, 80 shrubs; and 70.51%, 318 herbs) have been recorded.In general, PSK site represented 73.6% and LTP site represented only 54.9% of the total plant species recorded in the study area.Out of total species in PSK site, native species contributed 59.6%(198spp.) and 24.7% species were endemic and near endemic.In LTP site, 66.5% species were Himalayan natives and 33.5% were endemic and near endemic.The species richness ranged from 4-23 ind ha-1(tree),3-18 ind ha-1(sapling), 5-19 ind ha-1(seedling) in PSK site and 4-18 ind ha-1(tree), 4-11 ind ha-1(sapling), 4-16 ind ha-1(seedling) in LTP site.The density ranged from 260-535 ind ha-1(tree), 145-633 ind ha-1(sapling), 1450-8170 ind ha-1(seedling) in PSK site and 599-1211 ind ha-1(tree), 70-951 ind ha-1(sapling),470-1665 ind ha-1(seedling) in LTP site.Species diversity for trees ranged from 0.73-3.37, saplings,0.64-2.67, seedlings, 0.70-2.51, shrubs, 1-2.34 and herbs, 2.02-3.21 in PSK site and 0.63-1.61, saplings,0.76-1.36, seedlings, 0.35-1.79, shrubs, 0.98-2.73 and herbs, 2.48-3.61 in LTP site.These recorded values were almost comparable with the studies conducted in sub-tropical, temperate and sub-alpine regions of the west Himalaya.In some cases the values were slightly higher than the reported values.The important communities with high conservation values have been identified based on different ecological parameters and species distribution.Among all the prioritized communities, Mixed Silver firRhododendron-Maple community in PSK site and Taxus wallichana- A.pindrow mixed community in LTP site supports maximum richness and density of native and endemic species.This study calls for development of adequate strategy and action plan for the conservation and management of habitats, species,and communities under changing climate and socioeconomic scenarios, so that sustainable utilization of the species could be ensured.     

The potential contribution of wildlife sanctuary to forest conservation: A case study from binsar wildlife sanctuary

Forest vegetation of a protected area(Binsar Wildlife Sanctuary) in Kumaun region(west Himalaya) was analysed for structure,composition and representativeness across three different altitudinal belts,lower(1,600-1,800 m a.s.l.),middle(1,900-2,100 m a.s.l.) and upper(2,200-2,400 m a.s.l.) during 2009-2011 using standard phytosociological methods.Four aspects(east,west,north and south) in each altitudinal belt were chosen for sampling to depict maximum representation of vegetation in the sanctuary.Population structure and regeneration behaviour was analysed seasonally for two years to show the establishment and growth of tree species.A total of 147 plant species were recorded from the entire region of which 27 tree species were selected for detailed study.Highest number was recorded at upper(18 species),and lowest at lower altitudinal belt(15 species).The relative proportion of species richness showed higher contribution of tree layer at each altitudinal belt.The population structure,based on the number of individuals,revealed a greater proportion of seedling layer at each altitudinal belt.The relative proportion of seedlings increases significantly along altitudinal belts(p<0.05) while opposite trends were observed in sapling and tree layers.The density of sapling and seedling species varied non-significantly across seasons(p>0.05).The density values decreased in summer and increased during rainy season.As far as the regeneration status is concerned,middle and upper altitudinal belts showed maximum number of species with fair regeneration as compared to lower altitudinal belt.Overall density diameter distribution of tree species showed highest species density and richness in the smallest girth class and decreased in the succeeding girth classes.This study suggests that patterns of regeneration behaviour would determine future structural and compositional changes in the forest communities.It is suggested that the compositional changes vis-à-vis role of ‘New’ and ‘Not regenerating’ species need priority attention while initiating conservation activities in the sanctuary.This study calls for exploring other less explored Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Himalaya and across the world,to achieve overall biodiversity status in these protected areas and thus to justify their role in conserving biodiversity in the region.     

Diversity, Distribution Pattern and Conservation Status of the Plants Used in Liver Diseases/Ailments in Indian Himalayan Region

Introduction The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is known for its unique, natural, representative biodiversity (Samant et al. 1998a). This biodiversity is being utilized by the inhabitants of the IHR in various forms, i.e., medicine, food (wild edibles), fuel, fodder, timber, making agricultural tools, fiber, religious and various other purposes (Samant and Dhar 1997, Samant et al. 1998b). In the remote areas of the IHR where primary health centers are located far from the villages, the in…     

Plant studies in the first Himalayan Biosphere Reserve: a review

Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve(NDBR) was declared as the first Himalayan Biosphere Reserve owing to its unique biological and cultural wealth. Its core zones, Nanda Devi National Park and Valley of Flowers National Park, are a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site. In spite of lying at a high altitude, interplay of factors such as unique geographical location, climate, topography and wide altitudinal variations have endowed NDBR with a rich and diverse flora. Proportionately high percentage of endemic and near endemic plants makes NDBR a very important protected area from conservation point of view. However, its floristic wealth is facing unprecedented threats in the form of climate change and growing anthropogenic pressure. Hence, a need was felt to assess the directionality, quality and sufficiency of past and ongoing research for the conservation of floral and ethnobotanical wealth of NDBR in the absence of any such previous attempt. Based on an extensive review of more than 150 plant studies on NDBR, this communication provides a detailed account of the current state of knowledge and information gaps on flora, vegetation ecology, rare, endangered, threatened(RET) and endemic plants and ethnobotany. Priority research areas and management measures are discussed for the conservation of its unique floral wealth. Incomplete floral inventorization, lack of biodiversity monitoring, meagre studies on lower plant groups, population status of medicinal plants, habitat assessment of threatened taxa and geo-spatial analysis of alpine vegetation were identified as areas of immediate concern.     

Systems of agriculture farming in the Uttranchal Himalaya,India

Agricultural practices are the main stay of the people of Uttranchal. Out of the total population,more than 75% people are engaged either with the main occupation of agriculture or its allied practices,dominated by traditional subsistence cereal farming.Among them, the main crops are rice, wheat, millet,barley, all types of pulses, all types of oilseeds and almost all types of fruits. The crops, vegetables and fruits of all varieties are grown in the different climatic zones such as tropical, temperate, and cold because, the region is characterized by the different altitudinal zones elevated from 200 m to more than 8000m. As a result, different climates are found from hot tropical to sub temperate and chilly cold. Pulses varieties are grown extensively. Among vegetables,potato, onion, carrot, all types of green leaf vegetables,brinzal, pumpkin, ladyfinger, pea, gram, radish,ginger, garlic, etc, are grown widely. All fruit varieties are grown in the different altitudinal zones. The mainfruits are orange, malta (a big size of orange),elephant citrus, lemon and all other types of citrus,apple, stone fruits including peach and pears, manykinds of nuts, and the fruits which are grown in the low lying areas. In spite of feasible climatic conditions,agricultural dominant society, and availability of all types of crops, the production and productivity of these crops are very low, even they are unable to meet the grain-need of the people in Uttaranchal. Agricultural crops are grown almost in all the altitudinal zones -- from the low-lying areas, which are called ‘Ga. ngarh‘, to the highly elevated region,where the legendary term is given as ‘Danda‘. The growing seasons vary according to the heights. The present paper aims to discuss the agricultural practices including cropping season, cropping pattern,land use, production of cropsagricultural system in thisand ecological aspect of Himalayan state and suggest some measures for developing farming system,which could lead the sustainability, in terms of meeting the food grain needs of the people on the one hand and restoring the ecological balance on the other.     

Plant species diversity along an altitudinal gradient of Bhabha Valley in western Himalaya

The present study highlights the rich species diversity of higher plants in the Bhabha Valley of western Himalaya in India. The analysis of species diversity revealed that a total of 313 species of higher plants inhabit the valley with a characteristic of moist alpine shrub vegetation. The herbaceous life forms dominate and increase with increasing altitude. The major representations are from the families Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Poaceae, suggesting thereby the alpine meadow nature of the study area. The effect of altitude on species diversity displays a hump-shaped curve which may be attributed to increase in habitat diversity at the median ranges and relatively less habitat diversity at higher altitudes. The anthropogenic pressure at lower altitudes results in low plant diversity towards the bottom of the valley with most of the species being exotic in nature. Though the plant diversity is less at higher altitudinal ranges, the uniqueness is relatively high with high species replacement rates. More than 90 % of variability in the species diversity could be explained using appropriate quantitative and statistical analysis along the altitudinal gradient. The valley harbours 18 threatened and 41 endemic species, most of which occur at higher altitudinal gradients due to habitat specificity.     

Plant functional type approach for a functional interpretation of altitudinal vegetation zones in the Alborz Mts., Iran

Mountains are an excellent system for evaluating ecological and biogeographical patterns. The obvious variations of the environmental factors along the altitude create different zones with adapted plant assemblages. However, few studies make use of plant functional type(PFT) for describing the variation of vegetation along altitudinal gradients. A PFT is a group of taxa with similar traits which respond similarly to the environmental gradients. In this study, we used PFTs as indicators describing five vegetation zones in the western Alborz Mt, Iran from 2000 – 4500 m. The plant trait data presented here covers six plant traits including growth form, stemleaf ratio, spinescence, hairiness, leaf consistency and plant height of 297 species. We considered altitude and soil factors to test the importance of environmental variables. We applied a multivariate analysis of three table ordination, i.e. environmental, species, and traits data to identify the PFTs. We further applied fourth-corner statistic to quantify trait-environment relationships. A constrained hierarchical clustering was used to detect five altitudinal zones and two zones of low and high nitrogen concentration. With regard to altitude wediscuss the distribution of species, traits and PFTs. Growth form, plant height and stem-leaf ratio were significantly related to altitude and nitrogen. We identified 19 PFTs from which 18 were significantly associated to one or more altitudinal zones. While the lower altitudinal zones contain a variety of PFTs higher altitudes contain less PFTs with the highest altitude containing only one single PFT, tiny rosette plants with soft mesomorphic leaves. We identified grazing and climatic harshness as well as rockiness as the most important drivers of the distribution of plant functional traits and types across the studied gradient.     

A survey of fodder plants in mid-altitude Himalayan rangelands of Uttarakhand,India

Himalayan rangelands, the crucial but by and large the neglected ecosystems, are an integral part of mountain farming systems. The present investigation is based on the extensive survey and collection of mid-altitude range plants from Almora and Champawat districts of Kumaun division in the Uttarakhand Himalaya in India, from September 2003 to June 2007. The rangelands studied were oak types, chirpine types, grass types and mixed ones. Some 300 species of grasses, other herbaceous plants, trees and shrubs were found in the mid-altitude rangelands. A sizeable number of species belonged to the family of Poaceae. The grass-dominated rangelands especially harboured a variety of grass species of good fodder value. The diversity of fodder plants is a proportion of the enormous biodiversity occurring in the parts of the Himalaya. A panorama of the biodiversity emerged in this study, which is of both intangible value and direct value for the livestock- and rangeland- dependent mountain communities, suggests a very high scope of the utilization of this natural and uncultivated biodiversity for supporting livestock- based livelihoods of the region. This biodiversity also has enormous bearing on the cultivated area of the region.     

Changes in Agricultural Biodiversity： Implications for Sustainable Livelihood in the Himalaya

Himalayan mountain system is distinguished globally for a rich biodiversity and for its role in regulating the climate of the South Asia.Traditional crop-livestock mixed farming in the Himalaya is highly dependent on forests for fodder and manure prepared from forest leaf litter and livestock excreta. Apart from sustaining farm production, forests provide a variety of other tangible and intangible benefits, which are critical for sustainable livelihood of not only 115 million mountain people, but also many more people living in the adjoining plains. Extension of agricultural landuse coupled with replacement of traditional staple food crops by cash crops and of multipurpose agroforestry trees by fruit trees are widespread changes. Cultivation of Fagopyrum esculentum,Fagopyrum tataricum, Panicum miliaceum, Setaria italica and Pisum arvense has been almost abandoned. Increasing stress on cash crops is driven by a socio-cultural change from subsistence to market economy facilitated by improvement in accessibility and supply of staple food grains at subsidized price by the government. Farmers have gained substantial economic benefits from cash crops. However, loss of agrobiodiversity implies more risks to local livelihood in the events of downfall in market price/demand of cash crops, termination of supply of staple food grains at subsidized price, pest outbreaks in a cash crop dominated homogeneous landscape and abnormal climate years. Indigenous innovations enabling improvement in farm economy by conserving and/enhancing agrobiodiversity do exist, but are highly localized. The changes in agrobiodiversity are such that soil loss and run-off from the croplands have dramatically increased together with increase in local pressure on forests. As farm productivity is maintained with forest-based inputs, continued depletion of forest resources will result in poor economic returns from agriculture to local people,apart from loss of global benefits from Himalayan forests. Interventions including improvement in traditional manure and management of on-farm trees,participatory development of agroforestry in degraded forest lands and policies favoring economic benefits to local people from non-timber forest products could reduce the risks of decline in agricultural biodiversity and associated threats to livelihoods and Himalayan ecosystems.     

Species and plant community reorganization in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt under climate change conditions

This study analyzes six vegetation communities in relation to current climatic parameters and eight climate change scenarios along an elevation gradient extending from 2,710 m to 4,210m in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The projected movements of 25 plant species with the current restricted or wide altitudinal distributions were also modeled. To relate climatic parameters to the species and communities, a Precipitation/Temperature(P/T)index was used both for the current and the different climate-change scenarios. The temperatures are expected to increase by 1.1°C to 1.7°C by 2020 and by2°C to 3°C by 2050. A decrease of 4% to 13% in the annual precipitation is expected for the 2020 horizon,and a reduction between 3% and 20% is expected for2050. The reductions in water availability were projected for all altitude levels and plant communities.The most marked reduction was under the HADLEYA2 scenario, in which the lower limit of the altitudinal range increased from 2,710 to 3,310 m(2050 horizon)with reductions in the P/T index between 36% and39% compared to the current climate. Most plant species tended to shift their distribution from 200 to300 m upward in the 2020 temporal horizon scenarios. The Pinus hartwegii, Alnus jorullensis and Pinus montezumae communities would have a shorter altitudinal range as they move upward and merge with the remaining species at the higher altitudinal range. For the 2050 temporal horizon,30% of the species, primarily those from the higher altitudinal range, would disappear because their P/Tindex values would be above the limit of plant survival(4,210 m).     

THE FLORISTIC STRUCTURE OF THE XIZANG PART OF THE QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU PLANT SUBKINGDOM

The flora of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau belongs to the floristic subkingdom of the Holarctic plant kingdom. The Xizang part of this subkingdom can be divided into 4 plant regions. 1) the Yarlung Zangbo River valley region. There are 1,003 species of seed plants, making up 19.38% of the total species in Xizang, and 159 endemic species, 15.89% of the total seed plants. The flora originates mainly from the East Himalayas and the Hengduan Mountains. 2) The Tanggute region. There are 349 species of seed plants and 10 endemic species. The flora represents an intermediate one between the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and the Hengduan Mountains.3) The Qiangtang region. There are 255 species of seed plants and 18 endemic species. The flora derived from the Himalayan flora and mixed with a great number of Tethysian elements. 4) the Ali region. There are 547 species of seed plants and 41 endemic species. The flora seems to be closely related to Tethysian one.     

Impacts of Norwegian large carnivore management strategy on national grazing sector

Increasing populations of large carnivores are leading to tension and conflicts with livestock production, a situation that potentially might escalate.In Norway the objective of the large carnivore policy is two-folded: to ensure viable carnivore populations and to secure a sustainable grazing industry. The main instrument is zonation, with carnivore management zones(CMZs) prioritized for reproduction of the large carnivore species separated from other areas prioritized for grazing livestock. The objective of this paper is to describe current knowledge about the impact of the zoning management strategy on the grazing industry. This is done by documenting status and changes in sheep production, losses of livestock to predating carnivores,and the use of grazing areas inside and outside the CMZs. CMZs offering protection for lynx, wolverine,bear and wolf cover 55% of the Norwegian mainland.30% of the sheep and 50% of the Sami reindeer grazing areas are found inside the CMZs. Livestock(semi-domestic reindeer excluded) is using 59% of the available natural pasture areas outside the CMZs, but only 26% inside the CMZs. The lowest use of availablegrazing areas was found inside zones for wolves(12%)and brown bears(6%). Livestock in these zones are confined to fenced enclosures, mostly on the farm itself, or moved to pastures outside the management zone for summer grazing. Livestock losses increased in the affected regions during the period when carnivores were reestablished. Later, losses declined when CMZs were established and mitigation efforts were implemented in these zones. The bulk of sheep and reindeer killed by carnivores are now found in boundary areas within 50 km off the CMZs, where sheep are still grazing on open mountain and forest ranges. Therefore, instruments to protect livestock in areas close to the CMZs are also needed. The number of sheep declined inside the CMZs from 1999 to 2014,but increased outside the zones. The reduction in the absolute number of sheep in the CMZs is balanced by a similar increase outside, thus the total sheep production in Norway is maintained. We conclude that although of little consequence for the total food production in Norway, the economic and social impact of the large carnivore management strategy can be serious for local communities and individual farmers who are affected. There is a need for more exact carnivore population monitoring to quantify the carnivore pressure, better documentation of reindeer losses, and a clearer and stricter practicing of thezoning strategy. Increased involvement of social sciences is important in order to understand the human dimension of the carnivore conflicts.     

Diversity,endemism and conservation of ferns (Polypodiales) in the Mexican Mountain Component

We analyzed the distributional patterns of 95 selected species of leptosporangiate ferns inhabiting the Mexican Mountain Component, using grid-cells of one geographical degree as unit areas, applying endemism indices and richness and beta diversity analyses. Distributional data were obtained from several herbaria and specialized literature. Five grid-cells appear to be important for fern species richness, as they contain 35 to 49 species. These grid-cells are located in the Sierra Madre Oriental (SMO), Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) and the Sierra Madre del Sur (SMS). Mean richness by latitudinal belts of one degree showed that the belts with highest values are related to the TMVB and SMS. A total of 13 grid-cells were recognized as important from the perspective of endemism; most of them are located also in the SMO, TMVB and SMS. The richest gridcells coincided with one of the main centres of endemism for ferns obtained in this study, located in the convergence of the southern part of the SMO, the eastern portion of the TMVB and the northern part of the SMS, reflecting the high humidity existing on the mountain slopes facing the Gulf of Mexico. Some important grid-cells recognized from richness and endemism analyses coincide with Mexican Natural Protected Areas. The beta diversity analysis showed a low degree of similarity among grid-cells, implying a high species replacement, as the result of environmental heterogeneity occurring in the Mexican mountain systems. On the other hand, the spatial analysis suggested a pattern of phytogeographical regionalization comprising two main areas: the Mexican Transition Zone and the Mexican Central Plateau. Ferns play an important role in the Mexican biodiversity and contributing to the beta diversity of Mexico.     

Climate warming-induced upward shift of Moso bamboo population on Tianmu Mountain, China

Although increasing attention has been paid to upward shift of plant species in altitude as a response to global warming, research on this phenomenon at low altitudinal and low latitudinal zones did not receive enough attention. In this study, an investigation was carried out to test the relationship between the upward spread of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) along altitudinal gradient and the increasing air temperature over the past decade within the Tianmu Mountain region, situated in southeastern China. Results showed that the peak elevation of Moso bamboo population establishment rose by an average of 9.8 m (±2.7 m) during the past decade and significant correlation existed with mean annual temperature (P < 0.0001, n = 339) but not with annual precipitation (P = 0.7, n = 339), indicating that the upward shift of Moso bamboo along altitudinal gradients was driven primarily by warming temperatures. This upward shift could potentially reduce biodiversity by altering the species composition of the ecosystem. However, there is also the potential for increased carbon sequestration capacity of local forest systems, which would produce an additional carbon sink to combat rising atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and future global warming.     

Decreasing nutrient concentrations in soils and trees with increasing elevation across a treeline ecotone in Rolwaling Himal,Nepal

At a global scale, tree growth in alpine treeline ecotones is limited by low temperatures. At a local scale, however, tree growth at its upper limit depends on multiple interactions of influencing factors and mechanisms. The aim of our research was to understand local scale effects of soil properties and nutrient cycling on tree growth limitation, and their interactions with other abiotic and biotic factors in a near-natural Himalayan treeline ecotone. Soil samples of different soil horizons, litter, decomposition layers, and foliage samples of standing biomass were collected in four altitudinal zones along three slopes, and were analysed for exchangeable cations and nutrient concentrations, respectively. Additionally, soil and air temperature, soil moisture, precipitation, and tree physiognomy patterns were evaluated. Both soil nutrients and foliar macronutrient concentrations of nitrogen (N), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and foliar phosphorus (P) decrease significantly with elevation. Foliar manganese (Mn) concentrations, by contrast, are extraordinarily high at high elevation sites. Potential constraining factors on tree growth were identified using multivariate statistical approaches. We propose that tree growth, treeline position and vegetation composition are affected by nutrient limitation, which in turn, is governed by low soil temperatures and influenced by soil moisture conditions.     

Stakeholder perspectives on use, trade, and conservation of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal

People’s livelihood in several Himalayan regions largely depends on collection, use, and trade of medicinal plants. Traditional use is generally not a problem, but commercial gathering of selected species to meet increasing national and international demand can result in over-exploitation. Sustainable management of medicinal plants requires a clear understanding of the respective roles, responsibilities and viewpoints of the various stakeholders involved. Through personal interviews and group discussions, this study aimed at investigating the views of two stakeholder groups on use, trade and conservation of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa district of Nepal. Local people and district and national organizations agreed that medicinal plants are collected for a combination of commercial and personal uses. Perceptions on market availability differed significantly: 100 % of the respondents from district and national organizations saw markets as easily available, against only 36 % for local people. This could explain why medicinal plants were perceived by local people to contribute less to income generation than to livelihood improvement. Different viewpoints were also expressed concerning the status of medicinal plants in the district: 81 % of the respondents from district and national organizations considered that medicinal plants were threatened, compared to only 28 % for local people. Despite this disparity, both stakeholder groups agreed upon potential threats to medicinal plants: over-harvesting; habitat loss due to land-use change and deforestation; and over-grazing by livestock. Several challenges were identified regarding sustainable management of medicinal plants, such as ambiguous policies; lack of resources, information and infrastructures; habitat degradation; and over-exploitation. Despite these challenges, respondents agreed that the medicinal plants sector offers huge opportunities in the Rasuwa district, given resource availability, community awareness and motivation, and the priority given to the sector by governments and other agencies. Proper collaboration, communication and coordination among stakeholders are needed to grab these opportunities.     

Elevational distribution of butterflies in the Himalayas: a case study from Langtang National Park,Nepal

Mountain ecosystems are relatively more vulnerable to climate change since human induced climate change is projected to be higher at high altitudes and latitudes. Climate change induced effects related to glacial response and water hazards have been documented in the Himalayas in recent years, yet studies regarding species’ response to climate change are largely lacking from the mountains and Himalayas of Nepal. Changes in distribution and latitudinal/altitudinal range shift, which are primary adaptive responses to climate change in many species, are largely unknown due to unavailability of adequate data from the past. In this study, we explored the elevational distribution of butterflies in Langtang Village Development Committee (VDC) of Langtang National park; a park located in the high altitudes of Nepal. We found a decreasing species richness pattern along the elevational gradient considered here. Interestingly, elevation did not appear to have a significant effect on the altitudinal distribution of butterflies at family level. Also, distribution of butterflies in the area was independent of habitat type, at family level. Besides, we employed indicator group analysis (at family level) and noticed that butterfly families Papilionidae, Riodinidae, and Nymphalidae are significantly associated to high, medium and low elevational zone making them indicator butterfly family for those elevational zones, respectively. We expect that this study could serve as a baseline information for future studies regarding climate change effects and range shifts and provide avenues for further exploration of butterflies in the high altitudes of Nepal.     

Forest biodiversity assessment in Peruvian Andean Montane cloud forest

Cloud forests are unusual and fragile habitats, being one of the least studied and least understood ecosystems. The tropical Andean dominion is considered one of the most significant places in the world as regards biological diversity, with a very high level of endemism. The biodiversity was analysed in an isolated remnant area of a tropical montane cloud forest known as the "Bosque de Neblina de Cuyas", in the North of the Peruvian Andean range. Composition, structure and dead wood were measured or estimated. The values obtained were compared with other cloud forests. The study revealed a high level of forest biodiversity, although the level of biodiversity differs from one area to another: in the inner areas, where human pressure is almost inexistent, the biodiversity values increase. The high species richness and the low dominance among species bear testimony to this montane cloud forest as a real enclave of biodiversity.     

Integrated Analysis of the Trees and Associated UnderCanopy Species in a Subalpine Forest of Western Himalaya,Uttarakhand, India

Subalpine forests are known as outstanding habitats due to co-existence of both temperate and alpine vegetation and are classic example of ecotonal zones. Limited but diverse physiognomy of trees inhabiting in subalpine forest results in variability within under-canopy habitat conditions. Studies were undertaken to assess population status, habitat preference and interferences to the trees and associated undercanopy herbs in a subalpine forest of western Himalaya. A total of 10 woody and 23 under-canopy herbs were recorded in the selected subalpine forest area. At each stand, the number of tree species and under-canopy herbs ranged from 2 to 4 and 8 to 10 respectively. Abies spectabilis, Acer caesium, Quercus floribunda, Q. semecarpifolia and Rhododendron arboreum were key tree species in this area. The density of main woody species was 280 to 1190 individuals ha-1 at different stands. Herbaceous plants with rosette and clump growth habits were observed to have higher values for total basal cover and importance value index. Presence of some undercanopy herbs like; Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Malaxis muscifera, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Polygonatumcirrhifolium and Skimmia laureola in the specific habitats also showed that they are habitat specific.However, the presence of Frageria nubicola and Viola sp. was common in the selected stands. Felling of trees for timber, construction of temporary huts,fuel wood and lopping for fodder were main interferences for trees. On the other hand, trampling driven damage due to grazing, habitats degradation and overexploitation were observed key threats for under-canopy herbs. Integrated analysis including population studies, habitats preference and interferences to the trees and under-canopy herbs in this sensitive and important ecosystem will be useful for determining the conservation plans and ecosystem management.