Peat deposit water quality in Lake Istokpoga,Florida, U.S.A.

In 1983 water quality monitoring was conducted on peat deposits in Highlands County, Florida, U.S.A. The monitoring objective was to provide initial data on the water quality in the area in order to identify potential problems with environmental licensing of peat harvesting operations on these deposits. The investigation included sampling for in situ and laboratory water analyses, peat core analyses, elutriate tests, and interstitial water quality analyses. The general trends evident from the data are that BOD and COD (and the resulting DO) may change from the control and harvest peatlands, but not consistently. In addition, total suspended solids, organic color, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus concentrations appear to be elevated under disturbed conditions. For metals, the major cations (Ca, Mg, K, Fe) may show an increase under disturbed conditions vs. control. For the remaining metals, some increases may occur, but the changes are essentially unpredictable.     

Selected geochemical factors influencing diagenesis of eocene carbonate rocks,peninsular Florida,U.S.A.

The geochemical significance of three selected ions (Mg²⁺, Na⁺, and Sr²⁺) supports a model of dolomitization by brackish groundwater. This groundwater zone contains sufficient quantities of Mg²⁺ to facilitate dolomitization ($\text{Mg}\text{Ca}\text{ratios 1}$). Rising and falling of sea level and fluctuations of the phreatic zone related to climatic variations account for the thickness of the dolomite layers and the chemical distributions within these layers. Sodium concentrations in the calcite are 70–185 ppm, indicating formation in brackish water. Dolomite has sodium concentrations between 50–1400 ppm, suggesting formation in waters of similar salinity.Strontium in calcite ranges from 320–600 ppm, suggesting diagenesis in slightly saline waters in an open system. Dolomite contains 241 ppm Sr²⁺ on the average and calcite has 418 ppm Sr²⁺. The Sr²⁺ concentrations of the dolomite are characteristic of diagenesis in water less saline than sea water. Average strontium concentrations in the dolomite occur in two distinct groups, 260 ppm for dolomite with 39–43 mole-% MgCo₃ and 195 ppm for the dolomite with 44–50 mole-% MgCO₃. The difference in the Sr²⁺ concentrations of the two dolomite groups indicates the higher mole-% MgCO₃ dolomite recrystallized in a less saline environment than the lower mole-% MgCO₃ dolomite. These different environments are attributed to a relatively more saline coastal environment and a less saline inland environment.The more nearly stoichiometric dolomite (44–50 mole-% MgCO₃) has less scatter when mole-% MgCO₃ is plotted against Sr²⁺ and Na⁺. This suggests a greater approach to equilibrium with the dolomitizing fluid than the lower mole-% MgCO₃ (39–43) dolomite. The more saline environment has higher Mg/Ca ratios and promotes more calcium-rich dolomite during diagenesis because of the inhibition from competing foreign ions and because it is thermodynamically a more favorable environment which causes more rapid crystallization. The less saline waters allow recrystallization to proceed more slowly, producing better ordering in the dolomites, textural preservation and development of subhedral to euhedral rhombic crystals.     

The hydrologic effects of intense groundwater pumpage in east-central Hillsborough County,Florida, U.S.A.

Well problems, water shortages, local flooding, and induced sinkholes have been periodic problems for residents in east-central Hillsborough County, Florida. This agricultural area has experienced dramatic short-term water-level declines in the Floridan aquifer from seasonal groundwater withdrawals. The sudden declines in the potentiometric surface have been caused from intense irrigation pumpage, primarily for frost and freeze protection and fruit setting. Citrus and strawberry crops are protected from occasional freezes by the application of warm groundwater to maintain minimum soil temperatures of 32°F(0°C). Local residents with inadequately constructed wells lose their source of water when the potentiometric surface is lowered to depths where their wells do not function. Some residents have lost their water supply for a week or more, and many have incurred damage to their pumps. The drawdown of the potentiometric surface in some areas has induced sinkholes causing property damage for some residents and concern for others. In addition, the high application rates for frost and freeze irrigation have created run-off problems resulting in local flooding to some residents. Fortunately, there has been no damage to resident homes from the flooding or sinkholes. This report summarizes the area's hydrogeology, and the consequences of heavy freeze irrigation. A finite-difference, numerical model is used to quantify the regional impacts to the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer from estimated irrigation pumpage. Management recommendations for alleviating the problems are also discussed in the report.     

A comparison of mercury in estuarine fish between Florida Bay and the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA

Concentrations of mercury (Hg) in fish were compared between two Florida estuaries, the Indian River Lagoon and Florida Bay. The objective was to determine if differences in Hg concentration exist and to attempt to relate those differences to sources of Hg. Five hundred and thirteen estuarine fish were collected and analyzed for Hg concentration. Fish species collected were black drum, bluefish, bonnethead shark, common snook, crevalle jack, gafftopsail catfish, gray snapper, Mayan cichlid, pompano, red drum, sheepshead, southern flounder, spadefish, and spotted seatrout. Analysis of variance of species-specific Hg data among the three defined regions of eastern and western Florida Bay and the Indian River Lagoon substantiated regional differences. Proximity to known anthropogenic sources of Hg appeared to be a significant factor in the distribution of Hg concentration among the fish collected. Sufficient numbers of crevalle jack, gray snapper, and spotted seatrout were collected to permit statistical analysis among regions. Hg concentrations in all three of these species from eastern Florida Bay were higher than those collected in the other two areas. A major fraction of the estuarine fish collected in eastern Florida Bay exceeded one or more State of Florida or U.S. Food and Drug Administration fish consumption health advisory criteria. In general, fish from western Florida Bay contained less Hg than those from the Indian River Lagoon, and fish from the Indian River contained less Hg than those from eastern Florida Bay. Crevalle jack from all areas and spotted seatrout from Florida Bay were placed on a consumption advisory in Florida. Detailed study of Florida Bay food web dynamics and Hg biogeochemical cycling is recommended to better understand the processes underlying the elevated Hg levels in fish from eastern Florida Bay. This information may be vital in the formulation of appropriate strategies in the ongoing South Florida restoration process.     

Sedimentology and paleoecology of middle and upper eocene carbonate shoreline sequences,Crystal River,Florida, U.S.A.

Petrographic analyses of six cores penetrating the Inglis and Avon Park Formations, from Crystal River, Florida, U.S.A., reveal a general regressive—transgressive cycle, aerial exposure and diagenesis. Three distinct lithofacies are represented: (I) biomicrite—poorly washed biosparite; (II) dolomitized biopelmicrite—biosparite and algal dololithite; and (III) pellet- and intraclast-bearing biosparite. These lithofacies were deposited under shallow-marine conditions, at times even above the strand line.Lithofacies I was deposited in a shallow basin partly covered by marine grasses and dasyclad algae. Lithofacies II was deposited in the supratidal and intertidal zones and closely resembles the sedimentary characteristics of Holocene mud-flat deposits. Lithofacies III is the shallow-marine counterpart of the supratidal dolostone of lithofacies II and can be compared with a Holocene bank environment.This study illustrates the importance of Holocene analogues in determining and interpreting environments and demonstrates the need to consider sedimentary processes, both physical and biological, which operate in these zones.     

Radium Sampling Methods and Residence Times in St. Andrew Bay,Florida

Activity ratios (AR) of radium isotopes have been used with success to constrain estimates of water ages and to approximate residence times in coastal waters. We compared two common radium sampling methods (grab sampling and stationary moorings) to estimate water ages and the residence time of St. Andrew Bay waters in northwest Florida, USA. Both sampling methods utilize manganese dioxide fibers (“Mn fibers”) to adsorb dissolved radium from the water column. Grab samples capture radium activities at a discrete time while moorings integrate radium activities over longer deployments. The two methods yielded similar results in this study and thus both approaches are useful for water age comparisons and residence time approximations. However, since radium often varies as a function of tidal stage, deploying moorings over a complete tidal cycle is the preferred approach. An estimated residence time for North Bay and West Bay of 8–11 days was approximated using ARs for both ex²²⁴Ra/²²³Ra and ex²²⁴Ra/²²⁸Ra. Some complications were introduced as St. Andrew Bay is a tidally dominated, rather than a river-dominated bay system where this method has previously been applied. The largest freshwater source to this bay system is from a man-made reservoir, with an average freshwater flow of only 20 m³ s^?1. The activity concentrations and ARs measured by both sampling methods suggest that while the reservoir is the prominent radium source, it is not the only radium source. Nonetheless, a tidal mixing model applied to the western half of the system yielded an approximate flushing time of 10–12 days, similar to that derived from our radium-based water age approach.     

The Fort Drum Crystal Mine, Florida, USA

The Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits of South Florida contain a spectacularly rich fossil record and chronicle several cycles of marine inundation and freshwater lake formation. The Pinecrest, Tamiami, Caloosahatchee and Bermont formations are famed for the variety and preservation of their molluscan faunas. It is therefore sad that good exposures are ephemeral and where they do exist it is very difficult to gain access. In addition, the large commercial pits that exploit the sediments for landfill and aggregate are rarely pumped dry, the material being extracted by draglines from the flooded pit, thereby rendering it impossible to study the stratigraphy.     

Matrix permeability of the confined Floridan Aquifer,Florida, USA

The Upper Floridan Aquifer of peninsular Florida retains most of its depositional porosity and, as a result, is a multi-porosity aquifer: double porosity (fractured porous aquifer) downdip where the aquifer is confined, and triple porosity (karstic, fractured porous aquifer) in the updip, unconfined region. Matrix permeability in the confined region varies in the range <10^–14.4–10^–11.1 m², as determined by 12,000 minipermeameter measurements on 1,210 m of slabbed core. Limestones divide into 13 textural classes and dolomites into two. Depositional facies (textural class) strongly correlates with matrix permeability. As a result, the facies architecture of the Eocene and Oligocene carbonates that compose the confined portion of the aquifer controls the lateral and vertical distribution of its matrix transmissivity. The most-permeable facies are grainstones (median k, 10^–12.4 m²) and sucrosic dolomites (median k, 10^–12.0 m²). Together, they are responsible for ~73% of the matrix transmissivity of the logged cores, although they constitute only ~24% of the thickness. Examination of the flow equations of fractured porous aquifers suggests that the permeability of these two facies is large enough that matrix permeability cannot be discounted in modeling the hydraulics of the double-porosity system. This conclusion likely applies to most, if not all, Cenozoic double-porosity carbonate aquifers, as average matrix and fracture permeabilities in the Floridan Aquifer are similar to other Cenozoic carbonates from around the world.

---

Resumen El Acuífero Superior de Florida conserva gran parte de su porosidad deposicional y, como resultado, se comporta como un acuífero multi-poroso: de doble porosidad (acuífero poroso fracturado) a favor del buzamiento, donde se halla confinado, y de triple porosidad (acuífero poroso fracturado y kárstico) en sentido opuesto, en la zona en que se comporta como libre. La permeabilidad de la matriz en la región confinada está comprendida entre menos de 10^–14,4 y 10^–11,1 m², según determinaciones hechas a partir de 12.000 medidas de mini-permeámetro en 1.210 rodajas de testigos. Se ha distinguido quince clases texturales de calcita (n=2.298) y dos de dolomita (n=983), y las facies ejercen un gran control en la permeabilidad de la matriz. Como consecuencia, la arquitectura de las facies de los carbonatos Eocenos y Oligocenos que forman la zona confinada del acuífero controla la distribución lateral y vertical de la transmisividad de la matriz. Las facies más permeables son grainstones o grano-soportadas sin matriz (mediana de permeabilidad de 10^–12,4 m²) y dolomitas sacaroideas (10^–12,0 m²). Ambas son responsables de aproximadamente el 73% de la transmisividad de los testigos ensayados, aunque sólo constituyen el 24% de su espesor. El examen de las ecuaciones de flujo en acuíferos porosos fracturados sugiere que la permeabilidad de estas facies más permeables es lo suficientemente elevada como para no poder despreciar la permeabilidad de la matriz en la modelación hidráulica de dichos sistemas de doble porosidad. La proyección de la estratigrafía regional y de las tendencias de las facies en la parte del acuífero ubicado en sentido contrario al buzamiento, que tiene carácter de libre y está más karstificado, predice que las permeabilidades mayores son debidas al incremento de los porcentajes de grainstones y dolomitas sacaroideas. Por tanto, es probable que la transmisividad de la matriz deba ser tenida en cuenta en el sistema de triple porosidad de la región.

---

Résumé Laquifère floridien supérieur de la péninsule de Floride contient plus que sa porosité de dépôt et, par conséquent, est un aquifère à porosité multiple: double porosité (aquifère fracturé poreux) en aval-pendage, là où laquifère est captif, et triple porosité (aquifère karstique et fracturé poreux) en amont-pendage, dans la région où il est libre. La perméabilité de matrice dans la région captive est comprise entre moins de 10^–14,4 et 10^–11,1 m² daprès 12.000 mesures par miniperméamètre sur 1.200 m de carottes. Quinze classes texturales de calcaires (n=2.298) et deux classes de dolomies (n=983) ont été reconnues; il existe un fort contrôle du faciès sur la perméabilité. En effet, larchitecture des carbonates de lEocène et de lOligocène qui constituent la partie captive de laquifère contrôle la distribution latérale et verticale de la transmissivité de la matrice. Les faciès les plus perméables sont les grainstones (k médian, 10^–12,4 m²) et les dolomies saccharoïdes (10^–12,0 m²). Ces deux faciès rendent compte de 73% environ de la transmissivité dans les carottes étudiées, bien quils ne contribuent quà 24% environ de lépaisseur. Lexamen des équations découlement en aquifères fracturés poreux suggère que la perméabilité de ces faciès les plus perméables est assez importante pour que la perméabilité de matrice ne puisse pas être écartée dans la modélisation de lhydraulique de ces systèmes à double porosité. Si lon projette ces tendances de la stratigraphie régionale et des faciès à lamont-pendage, la partie non captive et karstifiée de laquifère laisse prévoir de fortes perméabilités dues à des pourcentages croissants de grainstones et de dolomies saccharoïdes. Il est donc très probable quil sera nécessaire de prendre en compte la transmissivité de matrice dans un système à triple porosité dans cette région.

     

Distribution and migration of pesticide residues in mosquito control impoundments St. Lucie County, Florida, USA

This project was designed to: (1) document the distribution and migration of organochlorine pesticide residues within marsh substrates of 18 St. Lucie County mosquito control impoundments located along the Indian River Lagoon estuary, and (2) evaluate the impact of water management techniques on residue mobility. Our results indicate that detectible concentrations of organochlorine compounds, applied between the late 1940s and early 1950s, are present in 16 of the 18 St. Lucie County mosquito control impoundments. These compounds are primarily restricted to the surficial, organic-rich wetland sediment, which, based upon geotechnical analysis, was exposed to the atmosphere at a time when the impoundments were subjected to pesticide treatment. Contaminated sediments are present below the surficial, organic-rich layer, suggesting that some vertical migration of pesticides has occurred. It is unlikely that leaching associated with the downward percolation of impounded water was responsible for this migration as pesticide residues were never detected within thein situ pore waters. An alternative explanation is that biological processes (e.g., rooting, burrowing) facilitated the downward flux of organochlorine compounds into sediment horizons not subjected to direct treatment. Eighty-eight surface water samples obtained from two impoundments subjected to contrasting water management techniques were analyzed for pesticide content. None of the surficial water samples collected in association with these impoundments contained detectible concentrations of organochlorine compounds. These samples were unfiltered and contained as much as 25 mg/1 of particulate organic matter. This suggests that the currently preferred management technique (RIM), which is designed to maintain water quality, limit mosquito production, and provide for ecological continuity, does not hydraulically mobilize pesticide residues into the Indian River Lagoon estuary.     

A generalized genetic framework for the development of sinkholes and Karst in Florida,U.S.A.

Karst topography in Florida is developed on the Tertiary limestones of the Floridan aquifer Post-depositional diagenesis and solution have made these limestones highly permeable, T=ca. 50,000 m²/d. Zones of megaporosity have formed at unconformities, and dissolution has enlarged joints and fractures Erosion of the overlying clastic Miocene Hawthorn group strata on one flank of a structural arch has exposed the limestone The elevated edge of the Hawthorn cover forms the Cody scarp Ubiquitous solution pipes have previously formed at joint intersections and are now filled Downwashing of the fill deeper into solution cavities in the limestone and subsidence of the overlying unconsolidated sediments causes surface collapse a subsidence doline or sinkhole This process may penetrate up to 60 m of the semi-consolidated Hawthorn cover, as occurred when the Winter Park sinkhole developed Dense clusters of solution pipes may have formed cenotes which are now found on the exposed limestone terrain Groundwater moves laterally as diffuse flow except where input or outflow is concentrated. At sinking streams, vertical shafts, and springs, karst caves have formed, but only the major sinking streams form through-flowing conduit systems Shaft recharge dissipates diffusely. Spring discharge is concentrated from diffuse flow In both cases, conduits taper and merge into a zone of megaporosity     

The American Crocodile in Biscayne Bay,Florida

Intensive crocodile monitoring programs conducted during the late 1970s and early 1980s in southern Florida resulted in an optimistic outlook for recovery of the protected species population. However, some areas with suitable crocodile habitat were not investigated, such as Biscayne Bay and the mainland shorelines of Barnes and Card Sounds. The objective of our study was to determine status and habitat use of crocodiles in the aforementioned areas. Spotlight and nesting surveys were conducted from September 1996 to December 2005. The results revealed annual increases in the number of crocodiles. Crocodiles preferred protected habitats such as canals and ponds. Fewer crocodiles were observed in higher salinity water. The distribution and abundance of crocodilians in estuaries is directly dependent on timing, amount, and location of freshwater delivery, providing an opportunity to integrate habitat enhancement with ongoing ecosystem restoration and management activities.     

ENSO impacts on salinity in Tampa Bay, Florida

Estuarine salinity distributions reflect a dynamic balance between the processes that control estuarine circulation. At seasonal and longer time scales, freshwater inputs into estuaries represent the primary control on salinity distribution and estuarine circulation. El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions influence seasonal rainfall and stream discharge patterns in the Tampa Bay, Florida region. The resulting variability in freshwater input to Tampa Bay influences its seasonal salinity distribution. During El Niño events, ENSO sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) are significantly and inversely correlated with salinity in the bay during winter and spring. These patterns reflect the elevated rainfall over the drainage basin and the resulting elevated stream discharge and runoff, which depress salinity levels. Spatially, the correlations are strongest at the head of the bay, especially in bay sections with long residence times. During La Niña conditions, significant inverse correlations between ENSO SSTAs and salinity occur during spring. Dry conditions and depressed stream discharge characterize La Niña winters and springs, and the higher salinity levels during La Niña springs reflect the lower freshwater input levels.     

Fouling community of the Loxahatchee River estuary,Florida, 1980–81

Monthly growth of the fouling community at eight test panel sites in the Loxahatchee River Estuary was related to salinity and temperature. Growth was lowest in January 1981 (averaging 23 g per m², dry weight), and increased during spring and early summer with increasing water temperature. Maximum growth occurred during early or midsummer at upstream locations, before river or canal discharge substantially reduced salinity, and in late summer at downstream locations. Growth was greatest at salinities slightly less than that of seawater and decreased at salinities less than about 10‰. Growth was suppressed throughout the estuary in August 1981, probably because of the sudden decrease in temperature and salinity, and perhaps the increase in physical scouring, caused by runoff from Tropical Storm Dennis. Large loads of nutrients transported to the estuary from storm runoff, however, may have subsequently stimulated growth, which increased in September 1981 to the maximum for the year (averaging 683 g per m², dry weight).     

Hydrologic fragmentation-induced eutrophication in Dove Sound,Upper Florida Keys,USA

Anthropogenic impacts to island systems can have deleterious effects on coastal aquatic ecosystems. These effects can alter water quality, primary production as well as habitat. Land development often fragments hydrologic connectivity within aquatic ecosystems forcing alterations in nutrient transport and increases the potential for eutrophication. Dove Sound, a tidal lagoon located in the Upper Florida Keys on Key Largo, has been subjected to anthropogenic influences of land development during the last century. To investigate these influences a short sediment core was collected from within Dove Sound and investigated using ²¹⁰Pb dating, stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen, and sedimentary pigments. Results indicated that Dove Sound has undergone eutrophication and the primary producer community structure has shifted from dominantly macrophytic to a system that supports substantial algal production. While septic waste was a possible source for eutrophication, low δ¹⁵N did not support this conclusion. However, the timing of the shifts in Dove Sound along with indicators of anoxia leads to the conclusion that fragmentation caused by the construction of a railroad was the root cause. The hydrologic fragmentation reduced the flushing rates, thereby enhancing anoxic conditions in the system and increasing the internal nutrient loading.     

Phytoplankton Spatial Variability in the River-Dominated Estuary,Apalachicola Bay,Florida

In shallow estuaries with strong river influence, the short residence time and pronounced gradients generate an environment for plankton that differs substantially in its dynamics from that of the open ocean, and the question arises “How is phytoplankton biomass affected?” This study assesses the small-scale spatial and temporal distribution of phytoplankton in Apalachicola Bay, a shallow bar-built estuary in the Florida Panhandle. Phytoplankton peaks were characterized to gain insights into the processes affecting spatial heterogeneity in biomass. Chlorophyll a (Chl a) distribution at 50-m spatial resolution was mapped using a flow-through sensor array, Dataflow©, operated from a boat that sampled four transects across the bay every 2 weeks for 16 months. Chl a peaks exceeding background concentrations had an average width of 1.3?±?0.7 km delineated by an average gradient of 3.0?±?6.0 μg Chl a L^?1 km^?1. Magnitude of E-W wind, velocity of N-S wind, tidal stage, and temperature affected peak characteristics. Phytoplankton contained in the peaks contributed 7.7?±?2.7% of the total integrated biomass observed along the transects during the study period. The river plume front was frequently a location of elevated Chl a, which shifted in response to river discharge. The results demonstrate that despite the shallow water column, river flushing, and strong wind and tidal mixing, distinct patchiness develops that should be taken into consideration in ecological studies and when assessing productivity of such ecosystems.     

Climatic Influences on Autochthonous and Allochthonous Phytoplankton Blooms in a Subtropical Estuary, St. Lucie Estuary, Florida, USA

The St. Lucie Estuary, located on the southeast coast of Florida, provides an example of a subtropical ecosystem where seasonal changes in temperature are modest, but summer storms alter rainfall regimes and external inputs to the estuary from the watershed and Atlantic Ocean. The focus of this study was the response of the phytoplankton community to spatial and temporal shifts in salinity, nutrient concentration, watershed discharges, and water residence times, within the context of temporal patterns in rainfall. From a temporal perspective, both drought and flood conditions negatively impacted phytoplankton biomass potential. Prolonged drought periods were associated with reduced nutrient loads and phytoplankton inputs from the watershed and increased influence of water exchange with the Atlantic Ocean, all of which restrict biomass potential. Conversely, under flood conditions, nutrient loads were elevated, but high freshwater flushing rates in the estuary diminished water residence times and increase salinity variation, thereby restricting the buildup of phytoplankton biomass. An exception to the latter pattern was a large incursion of a cyanobacteria bloom from Lake Okeechobee via the St. Lucie Canal observed in the summer of 2005. From a spatial perspective, regional differences in water residence times, sources of watershed inputs, and the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean influenced the composition and biomass of the phytoplankton community. Long water residence times in the North Fork region of the St. Lucie Estuary provided an environment conducive to the development of blooms of autochthonous origin. Conversely, shorter residence times in the mid-estuary limit autochthonous increases in biomass, but allochthonous sources of biomass can result in bloom concentrations of phytoplankton.