Coastal and marine resource use conflicts and sustainable development in Tanzania

A survey of coastal and marine resource use conflicts in Tanzania was carried out to highlight them, investigate their origin and finally, suggest ways of minimizing them. Although Tanzania is putting emphasis on environmental issues, including coastal zone management, integrated coastal area management has not yet been integrated into the government management structure/approach. Many conflicts are the result of sectoral approach to coastal and marine resources management, and improper or poor implementation of government policies. Additionally, the local coastal community, who are the foremost stakeholder, were most often not involved in the planning, decision and implementation of many projects and policies even those that affect them directly. Ignorance about the linkages of coastal and marine ecosystems and resources is also an important factor. I suggest that integrated coastal area management which is the foundation for sustainable development, as far as coastal and marine resources are concerned, should be integrated into the government administrative structure. A lead agency with full authority on all activities on the coastal area, including issuance of permits for environmental sensitive businesses/activities, should be nominated or established. This will reduce conflicts by bringing about national coordination of coastal area management.     

Whose sustainability? Top–down participation and emergent rules in marine protected area management in Indonesia

A review of a major community-based marine protected area programme (CB-MPA) in an Indonesian island archipelago is the point of departure for this article. Despite a well-designed institutional structure to facilitate local participation, local knowledge about the CB-MPA is found to be low and resource access and influence on decision-making in the programme is negligible for the majority of islanders. At the same time, most of those who know about the programme consider it as pertaining to the public authority only. These findings stand in contrast to evidence on non-formal ways of protecting and managing marine areas in the same geographical area but outside the formal MPA institutional framework. In particular, the article identifies a number of emergent rules-in-use in marine management, which operate parallel to legally established MPAs. It is argued that emergent forms of marine area protection such as non-formal self-organising island exclusion zones (IEZ) offer as yet mostly unused potentials for formal MPA development, particularly in those coastal and marine areas without traditional forms of marine and coastal management.     

A comparison of zoning analyses to inform the planning of a marine protected area network in Raja Ampat,Indonesia

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are often managed using several management zones, each of which allows different human-uses. Decision support tools can be applied to provide advice on potential zoning configurations. However, few studies used decision support tools to systematically determine good locations for different types of zones that accommodate multiple and often conflicting objectives. Previous studies have mostly used scores to integrate multiple objectives and identify different zoning configurations or explored priority areas for each zone separately. Neither of these approaches ensure that solutions meet both biodiversity and human-use objectives. Nor do they deal with the fact that in zoning plans the whole is not the same as the sum of the parts, the importance of a site depends on how the rest of the sites are managed. The aim of this study was to identify different zoning configurations for the Raja Ampat MPA network in Eastern Indonesia that address biodiversity, sustainable fisheries and community resource access objectives. Identifying zoning configurations is particularly difficult here given the importance of protecting high biodiversity reefs and other conservation values, and the high reliance of local communities on their marine resources. Potential areas for no-take zones were identified that have a small and equitable impact across the fishing grounds of different fishing communities whilst ensuring each community has access to a ‘sustainable fishing zone’. Access to fishing grounds for each community is complicated due to marine tenure restricting where individuals can fish and reliance on traditional types of fishing vessels that restrict long distance travel. This approach for zoning was compared to three others. The first focused on identifying areas only for the no-take zone, a traditional systematic planning approach, and the second on both zones without explicitly accounting for the issue of resource access for each community. The solutions unfairly impacted particular communities. Finally, it is demonstrated how a pre-existing zoning proposal, driven by negotiation can be integrated into systematic planning.     

Evaluating marine protected areas for managing marine resource conflict in Hawaii

Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii (“West Hawaii”) to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.     

Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the Southern Gulf of Mexico

The coastal zone of the State of Campeche have some of the Gulf of Mexico’s richest ecosystems characterized by extensive seagrasses, mangrove forests, low-land tidal wetlands, a broad deltaic environment, including the Usumacinta/Laguna de Terminos estuarine ecosystem, and extensive low salinities and brackish wetlands in the Petenes region. Commercial and artisanal fishing, maritime transport, agriculture and cattle grazing in low-land areas, urban expansion, building of highways, and tourism, are important economics activities that are increasing in the State of Campeche. However, the growth needs to occur in a sustainable manner with adequate protection of the coastal ecosystems. The theoretical approach and conceptual basis of the integrated coastal management plan are based on 20 years of scientific research in the region; and from 1990 to the present, a number of projects have been completed which serve as case studies of coastal management coupling science, technology, public participation, and policymaking in the southern Gulf of Mexico. After developing seven “study case” integrating science into policymaking, a management approach was developed considering four main actions: promotion of institutional arrangements, so that the multi-sectorial planning approach be considered in coastal resources development; strengthening of public awareness related to coastal resources management policies and capabilities; gathering, analysis and dissemination of information related to coastal resources development; and provision of technical solutions to coastal resources uses in conflict. Finally this is a case study where science played a significant role in the politics of the policy process, both in protecting key estuarine ecosystem and the planning process defining the ICZM plans.     

Connections or conflict? A social and economic analysis of the interconnections between the professional fishing industry,recreational fishing and marine tourism in coastal communities in NSW,Australia

Resource conflict is a common feature of coastal management. This conflict is often managed by using spatial planning tools to segregate uses, with access decisions made through a comparison of the economic costs and benefits of the competing sectors. These comparisons rarely include an in-depth analysis of the extent or nature of the conflict. One commonly experienced form of resource conflict in coastal communities involves professional fishing, recreational fishing and broader coastal tourism. In New South Wales, Australia the professional fishing industry is often seen as being in conflict with recreational fishing and tourism, and there are frequent calls to close areas to professional fishing, arguing that this will provide improved economic benefits to local communities. This research examined the relationships between the three sectors using economic valuations, qualitative interviews and a large-scale representative questionnaire of the general public. The results revealed highly interconnected and mutually supportive relationships, with professional fishing providing a range of services that benefit both tourism and recreational fishing. These results suggest that spatial management exercises that seek to segregate or remove one sector from an area, may be counterproductive to the interests of all these groups. Relying on economic valuations of each sector as if they stand alone is insufficient to adequately understand their roles in local communities. Resource allocation decisions should be based on evaluations that consider the interconnections between sectors, and consider whether negotiated sharing of resources may provide greater community benefits than excluding certain groups of users.     

Ecological footprint and vulnerability of marine capture fisheries in China

China(herein referred as China’s mainland,and excluding Hong Kong,Macao and Taiwan)ranks as the world’s leading fishing nation,with approximately 11.1 million tons of domestic marine catch acquired in 2017.Marine fisheries resources in China are mainly exploited by its 11 coastal provinces and municipalities,and the development of fishing industry varies among them.However,few studies have examined the exploitation history of the 11 coastal provinces and municipalities.In this paper,we systematically quantified the exploitation history of marine fishery resources in China and then measured the vulnerability of the 11 coastal provinces and municipalities of China to a reduction in marine catches.Our analysis suggested that Chinese marine fisheries experienced rapid growth from the mid-1980 s to the end of the 20 th century,and this rapid increase in marine catches were mainly promoted by increased fishing effort.The total primary production required level amounted to approximately 80%of the average primary productivity in 2017,and Zhejiang,Fujian,Shandong,Hainan and Guangdong provinces were the main fishing provinces in China.By assessing three dimensions of vulnerability(exposure,sensitivity and adaptive capacity)to the impacts of a reduction in marine catches in the 11 coastal provinces and municipalities,we found that Hainan,Guangxi,Zhejiang and Fujian provinces had high or very high vulnerability,while the municipalities of Shanghai and Tianjin had low vulnerability.Identifying suitable adaptation policies and management plans based on the differences in vulnerability among coastal provinces is important in sustainable fisheries management.     

Reflective practice for marine planning: A case study of marine nature-based tourism partnerships

An essential component of ecosystem-based approaches in coastal zone management and the emerging field of marine planning are partnerships and collaborations between a range of multi-sector organisations and individuals. Ensuring that partnerships are effective is a priority for those responsible for planning and management in coastal and marine environments. Current partnership evaluation approaches, however, tend to view effectiveness as the cumulative end result of a set of variables acting in a linear process at a specific point in time. Given that governance and participation are acknowledged as non-linear and multifaceted processes, more reflective and nuanced approaches that take account of the dynamic, multidimensional and geographically embedded nature of the collaborative process are needed. This paper proposes a new framework for partnership evaluation based on policy narratives and indicators, and demonstrates the potential of the approach using three case studies of partnerships focused upon marine nature-based tourism. The insights from this research have direct relevance to the agencies and organisations responsible for delivering integrated coastal management, including marine spatial planning.     

The role of local Government in marine spatial planning and management in Taiwan

As a result of population growth and economic development, there has been a rapid increase in sea use around the island of Taiwan. Such increased use is placing pressure on the marine environment and its resources. Three draft territory laws (the Draft National Territory Planning Act, the Land Re-conservation Draft Bill, and the Draft Coastal Act) and the Local Government Act are neither consistent nor sufficiently comprehensive. Consequently, local Governments (municipalities and counties) experience difficulties in planning and managing their inshore waters. This paper will discuss the role local Governments plays in marine spatial planning and management. Local Government officials working in specialist marine affairs units from Kaohsiung and Keelung cities were surveyed to elicit their views with regards to management authority, management capacity and resources, officials’ commitment, and intergovernmental coordination/collaboration with respect to inshore waters. In-depth interviews were also conducted with local directors of specialist marine affairs units along with experts, to identify the causes of problems brought to light through the survey and to propose potential solutions to these problems. The study findings indicated that it is necessary to specify the marine spatial planning and management authority, as well as the scope of local Governments, in both the Coastal Act and Local Government Act. In order to sustainably develop Taiwan’s marine and coastal areas, it is important that the following four primary factors (management authority, management capacity and resources, officials’ commitment, and intergovernmental coordination/collaboration) be improved.     

Integrated marine pollution management: A new model of marine pollution prevention and control in Kaohsiung,Taiwan

In a small island country like Taiwan, where the coastal zones have been heavily utilized, it is critical for the government to protect the health of near shore aquatic environment by enforcing the Marine Pollution Control Act (MPCA). However, the implementation of an effective plan based on MPCA is challenging local area. This is particular the case in the local level when the cross linkage among all related agencies is generally lacking. In 2004, the Kaohsiung city was aware of the shortfalls and then implemented an integrated marine pollution management system. The new system was adopted an action plan, that integrates all agencies with a strong communication mechanism. The encouraging results have shown substantial resource savings and a great improvement in water quality in the Kaohsiung marine environment. The success of this case reflects the needs for the concept of the integrated coastal zone management when dealing with marine affairs.     

Knowing in context: An exploration of the interface of marine harvesters' local ecological knowledge with ecosystem approaches to management

Marine resource crises have initiated a search for alternative approaches to resource assessment and management that has culminated in a global focus on ecosystem approaches to management (EAM). Here, the ecosystem extends to humans as drivers and recipients of ecosystem change. More specifically, attention is being paid to identifying specific qualities of local resource users' experiences and knowledge that might productively inform resource management, while also providing local users with substantial “voice” in shaping new management policies and practices. Here an evaluation is provided of the extent to which local ecological knowledge (LEK) can provide advice for an ecosystem approach to inshore coastal management, specifically, the identification of ecologically and biologically significant areas, based on the results of two comprehensive studies of coastal Nova Scotian commercial harvesters' local ecological knowledge. While spatially explicit, local ecological knowledge displays strengths and limitations that must be explicated for it to prove useful for strengthening “voice” and providing EAM inputs.     

The role of local taboos in the management of marine fisheries resources in Tanzania

Contemporary government rules for fisheries resources management in developing countries have been challenged for their inadequacy. The search for modern management models for coastal and marine resources could be usefully informed by wealth of traditional knowledge that enabled communities to sustainably live with their environment for centuries or millennia. Local taboos, defined as implicit or explicit social rules prohibiting certain actions, have played an important part in many traditional approaches to resource use. A mixed methods approach was used to investigate how local taboos play a role in the management of fisheries resources in some rural and urban coastal communities of Tanzania. Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, participant observations and questionnaire surveys were used to gather primary data. Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The study identified a number of potential local taboos in the management of fisheries resources and their habitats in coastal Tanzania. While these taboos showed some potential for applications in modern management approaches, a majority of fishers indicated non-compliance to most of them, especially in urban areas. A number of reasons are revealed to have attributed to the non-compliance of these taboos. These findings suggest the prospect for judicious integration of traditional practices with modern strategies, to enhance compliance. More studies on traditional knowledge that has a role in fisheries resources management are recommended, as are biophysical assessments in conjunction with traditional practices to reveal their scientific benefits. Successful community-based fisheries resources management in Tanzania will draw on modern and traditional perspectives.     

Small-scale marine fisheries policy in Vietnam

Vietnam's marine fisheries are considered to be small scale and are concentrated in coastal near-shore waters. This has resulted in heavy pressure on near-shore fisheries resources. Near-shore fisheries are considered by fishers and the government to be over-exploited, causing hardship for many coastal communities. This paper reviews and analyzes changes in policy towards small-scale fisheries in Vietnam over the last two decades. The primary issues facing the small-scale fisheries in Vietnam are to restructure the near-shore fisheries and to address over-capacity. Recommended actions include improved fisheries statistics, resources for provincial fisheries staff, and a coordinated and integrated approach involving a mixed strategy of resource management; resource restoration; economic and community development; and new governance arrangements.     

Constructing ‘The Stade’: Fishers' and non-fishers' identity and place attachment in Hastings,south-east England

Many coastal communities have strong links to fishing that span generations where fishing is a way of life that goes beyond the means to earning a living. Fishing's influence is not confined to those activities that take place at sea, but spills over onto land to create a particular identity and sense of place in coastal towns inherently linked to fishing. Using Hastings in south-east England, with Britain's largest beach-launched fleet, as a case study, this paper considers how marine fishing contributes to place-making. Through an examination of the physical environment and semi-structured interviews, the study found that fishers have deep attachments to the fishing beach, called the Stade, which also defines their identity as individuals and as a fishing community. Non-fishers also value the contribution that fishing makes to the character of the town and its importance for related industries such as tourism. A deeper understanding of the attachments that fishers and non-fishers form with fishing places is needed to inform both local planning and regeneration strategies and, more broadly, fisheries and marine policy.     

The definition of marine recreational fishing in Europe

To describe marine recreational fisheries, their socio-economic importance and interactions with other fisheries and the environment, it is necessary to define what is meant by recreational fishing. A review of European Member States’ national legislation revealed considerable variation in ownership and access to coastal waters/fisheries, and in the legal distinction between sport fishing and other recreational uses of marine fisheries and their commercial (catching for sale and profit) counterparts. Together with a re-examination of existing definitions, this has enabled us to suggest definitions that may be used to develop a common approach to evaluate participation and socio-economic value of marine recreational fishing, and guide attempts to legislate for the benefit and development of marine recreational fishing across Europe.     

The bottom line: An investigation of the economic, cultural and social costs of industrial longline fishing in the Pacific and the benefits of sustainable use marine protected areas

Industrial longline fishing can be understood as a case study of the cultural, economic, environmental and social impacts of unsustainable fishing technology. While much attention has been attributed to the impact of industrial longlines on the marine ecosystem, little is known about the impact of longline fishing on local food security, employment, cultural belief systems and traditions, revenue generation from marine tourism and climate change. New data demonstrate that the contributions of Marine Protected Areas, marine tourism and recreational fishing to local coastal economies dwarf the contributions of longline fishing. When combined with the impact of overfishing on coastal fishing communities and fish consumers, policies promoting sustainable fisheries must be expanded to take these other factors into account along with issues of biodiversity.     

中国海洋渔业碳平衡状态及影响因素研究

低碳是海洋循环经济实现的重要途径,实现海洋渔业的碳平衡是海洋传统经济转变的重要发展方式。本文通过对2013—2022年全国及沿海9省(区)的海洋捕捞碳排放量与碳汇量测算,在此基础上分析了全国及沿海9省(区)的碳平衡状态,并利用灰色关联度分析碳平衡状态影响因素的关联度。结果表明除2020年-2022年山东省的碳平衡状态为盈余外,其他均为碳赤字状态。对于碳平衡状态的影响因素,总体来看全国与沿海9省(区)关联度较大的是海洋捕捞产量、捕捞人员数量和海水养殖面积。最后从加快渔船的升级改造与更新淘汰、调整捕捞的作业方式、提高海水养殖贝藻类的养殖规模以及加快渔业专业合作组织的建立和加速推广渔业碳汇交易提出相关对策建议,以期尽快地实现海洋渔业的碳平衡。     

ScotMap: Participatory mapping of inshore fishing activity to inform marine spatial planning in Scotland

A detailed understanding of fishing activity in Scottish waters is required to inform marine spatial planning. Larger fishing vessels are fitted with Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) offering spatial information on fishing activity. VMS does not cover smaller vessels (under 15 m), which fish predominantly in inshore waters where the competition for space is often greatest. To improve knowledge of the distribution of fishing activity and value of fisheries in Scotland's inshore waters, Marine Scotland conducted a participatory fisheries mapping project, known as ScotMap. The data were collected during face-to-face interviews with 1090 fishermen of Scottish registered commercial fishing vessels under 15 m in overall length and relate to fishing activity for the period 2007–2011. Interviewees were asked to identify the areas in which they fish, estimate the contribution these areas make to vessel earnings, and to provide associated information. The majority of interviews relate to creel fishing. The data collected were aggregated to provide mapped outputs of the monetary value, relative importance to fishermen and the usage of the seas around Scotland (number of fishing vessels and number of crew). ScotMap outputs provide information on the locations of inshore fishing activities and the economic importance of different sea areas at a much higher spatial resolution than was previously possible. Outputs have informed marine policy development, provide a valuable resource for marine spatial planning in Scotland and illustrate how participatory mapping can generate useful resources on the location and importance of inshore fishing areas.     

Conservation values in marine ecosystem-based management

Proactive ecosystem-based management represents a turning point in ocean management, because it formally recognizes the need to balance the potentially competing uses of the ocean, including aquaculture, energy production, conservation, fishing, and recreation. A significant challenge in implementing this balancing act arises from explicitly incorporating conservation in a decision-making framework that embraces assessments of trade-offs between benefits from conservation and conventional commercial uses of marine resources. An economic efficiency-based framework for evaluating trade-offs is utilized, and, for illustration, applied to assess the relative benefits and costs of conservation actions for the endangered western stock of the Steller Sea Lion (wSSL) in Alaska, USA. The example highlights many scientific and political challenges of using empirical estimates of the benefits and costs to evaluate conservation actions in the decision process, particularly given the public's large conservation values for the wSSL. The example also highlights the need to engage in stakeholder discussions on how to incorporate conservation into ecosystem-based management, and more specifically, coastal and marine spatial planning (CMSP). Without explicit consideration of these issues, it is unclear whether CMSP will better conserve and utilize ocean resources than the status quo.     

Neoliberal and neo-communal herring fisheries in Southeast Alaska: Reframing sustainability in marine ecosystems

The transformation of Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) fisheries from communal to commons to neoliberal regulation has had significant impacts on the health and sustainability of marine ecosystems on the Northwest Coast of North America. Due to their abundance, seasonality, and sensitivity in disturbance, herring were carefully cultivated and protected by coastal Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian communities. The early industrial fishing era undermined this communalist approach in favor of an unregulated commons for bait and reduction fisheries, attracting non-local fleets and leading to conflicts with local Natives and tragedy of the commons style overexploitation of herring stocks by the mid-twentieth century. Since the 1970s, a re-regulated neoliberal sac roe fishery for Japanese markets has provided new opportunities for limited commercial permit holders, but with further depredations on local spawning populations. This paper uses frame theory and historical and political ecology to show how this transformation was justified by three critical but dubious (re)framings of Southeast herring populations under modern scientific management: (1) a reductionist framing of single species productivity models, expressed as herring “biomass,” within space and time (baseline scale framing); (2) the selective framing and privileging of human industrial predation under maximum sustainable yield (MSY) within a dynamic ecosystem of multiple predator populations (actor relations framing); and (3) the strategic framing of spawning failure events and policy responses to those events by professional fisheries managers (event–response framing). Finally, the paper argues for a new social–ecological systems approach, based on aboriginal models of herring cultivation, to sustain a commercial, subsistence, and restoration economy for the fishery.