华北克拉通南缘蓝田和牧护关花岗岩体：LA-ICPMS锆石U-Pb年龄及其构造意义

蓝田和牧护关花岗岩体位于华北克拉通南缘、东秦岭西北端,同时地处大兴安岭-太行山重力梯度带西侧,准确限定其侵位时代对于正确理解华北克拉通岩石圈减薄的时空分布特征及东、西秦岭中生代岩浆作用的时空分布均具有重要意义。蓝田岩体主要由巨斑状二长花岗岩和中细粒二长花岗岩组成,牧护关岩体主要由花岗闪长岩、二长花岗岩和富黑云母花岗岩组成。对其中主体岩性的锆石LA—ICPMSU—Pb定年结果表明,蓝田和牧护关岩体的侵位时代分别为（154±1）Ma和（151±2）Ma,说明它们是燕山期（晚侏罗世-早白垩世）岩浆活动的产物。蓝田-牧护关岩体以西的西秦岭广大地区印支期岩浆岩分布广泛,但迄今为止尚未发现燕山期岩浆活动的证据,相反在蓝田一牧护关岩体以东的华北克拉通南缘和东秦岭地区,燕山期侵入岩十分发育。秦岭造山带中生代花岗岩类侵位时代的系统差异表明,东秦岭和西秦岭自晚侏罗世以后受不同的构造背景控制。一般认为,西秦岭印支期岩浆岩与扬子和华北板块的碰撞拼合有关,而东秦岭燕山期岩浆岩则与华北克拉通岩石圈减薄或太平洋板块向欧亚大陆的俯冲有关。因此,蓝田和牧护关岩体可能代表了滨太平洋构造一岩浆域和华北克拉通岩石圈减薄的西界。     

福建上杭地区燕山期花岗岩锆石U-Pb年代学及Hf同位素组成

选取福建省西南部紫金山中粗粒花岗岩、石壁寨西部含斑细粒二长花岗岩和东部斑状含黑云母二长花岗岩作为研究对象,利用LA-ICP-MS法对三个岩体的锆石进行了U-Pb、Lu-Hf和微量元素分析,获得了3个岩体的岩浆结晶分别为156.5±2.7Ma(晚侏罗世),166.2±8.1Ma(中侏罗世)和154.1±1.4Ma(晚侏罗世)。锆石的Lu-Hf同位素分析结果表明,锆石的两阶段Hf模式年龄(tDM2)分别为1.6~2.2Ga、1.7~2.0Ga和1.7~1.9Ga。锆石Hf同位素初始值ε_(Hf)(t)均为负,分别为-14.88~-8.40、-11.9~-7.8和-10.9~-7.4。锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)、Hf同位素地壳模式年龄分布范围较小,暗示岩体岩浆来源具有较为均一锆石Hf同位素组成。中侏罗世(166.2±8.1Ma)期间,古太平洋板块与欧亚板块发生碰撞,导致洋壳俯冲至陆壳之下,陆壳并发生了小规模的部分熔融,形成了石壁寨西部岩体;碰撞结束后,在晚侏罗世(145~156Ma)期发生由挤压向拉张环境的转换,闽西南岩石圈伸展减薄、壳源物质发生广泛的熔融作用,形成了大规模的紫金山岩体和石壁寨东部岩体。本文的研究成果,为研究闽西南花岗岩体的来源和区域构造演化提供了新的资料证据。     

西藏冈底斯西部江巴、邦巴和雄巴岩体的锆石U-Pb年代学与Hf同位素地球化学

对青藏高原冈底斯带西部中生代花岗岩的研究依然十分有限。本文选择青藏高原冈底斯带西部狮泉河-革吉-雄巴地区的三个花岗岩基进行了锆石SHRIMP U-Pb定年和锆石Hf同位素分析,并探讨了中冈底斯带中侏罗世-早白垩世花岗岩的分布特征及其揭示的地壳基底的属性。定年结果表明,江巴岩体花岗闪长岩年龄为170±3Ma,雄巴岩体碱长花岗岩年龄为149±3Ma,它们形成于中晚侏罗世;邦巴岩体寄主岩石正长花岗岩和其中的石英二长闪长岩包体年龄分别为144±3Ma和133±3Ma,形成于早白垩世。锆石Hf同位素和地壳模式年龄结果表明,中晚侏罗世的江巴岩体(εHf(t)为-16.8～-13.4,Hf同位素地壳模式年龄为2.1～2.3Ga)与雄巴碱长花岗岩(-11.3～-6.2和1.6～2.0Ga)具有富集的Hf同位素特征,显示了新元古界的地壳基底年龄。邦巴正长花岗岩(-4～-0.8和1.2～1.5Ga)与其中的闪长质包体(-2.8～+0.6和1.2～1.4Ga)具有一致的Hf同位素特征,显示了岩浆混合作用。本文花岗岩定年与Hf同位素结果进一步揭示出中冈底斯带存在未出露地表的古元古代地壳基底。     

太行山北段王安镇杂岩体中酸性岩锆石SHRIMP U-Pb定年、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

太行山北段王安镇杂岩体花岗闪长岩、二长花岗岩、髫髻山组火山岩-安山岩精细SHRIMP U-Pb定年和Hf同位素地球化学研究表明:花岗闪长岩体形成于135.7±1.3Ma,二长花岗岩体形成于133.7±1.1Ma,安山岩形成于138.89±0.9Ma,与杂岩体内基性侵入岩(138Ma)具有相似的形成年龄。花岗闪长岩的锆石εHf(t)值为-21.81~-16.09,相应tDMC为2.2~2.6Ga;二长花岗εHf(t)值为-20.50~-16.31,相应tDMC为2.2~2.5Ga,与杂岩体内基性岩体具有极为相似的Hf同位素特征εHf(t)=-22.8~-15.3。杂岩体中酸性岩类岩石成因可解释为:富集地幔(EMI)部分熔融形成的玄武质岩浆遭受一定程度的地壳混染以及之后的分离结晶作用对形成王安镇杂岩体中酸性岩类发挥着关键作用。与华北克拉通内部其他地区相同,晚侏罗-早白垩世北太行地区处于软流圈上涌的岩石圈伸展构造背景。     

西秦岭厂坝、黄渚关岩体的锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

厂坝及黄渚关岩体位于商丹缝合带和勉略缝合带之间的秦岭微板块,主要由花岗闪长岩及二长花岗岩组成。LA-MC-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年显示,黄渚关及厂坝岩体的演化可划分为中三叠世(229 Ma)和晚三叠世(215~209 Ma)2期。黄渚关中心部位的年龄((229.2±1.0)Ma)老于边部岩体((215.8±0.8)Ma),厂坝岩体中心部位年龄((218.3±1.2)Ma),老于边部年龄((209.4±0.8)Ma),结合岩体中心相和边缘相渐变的特征,说明2个岩体是由中心部位侵位,边部岩体的侵位冷却时间较晚造成的。黄渚关岩体的ε_(Hf)(t)为-3.13~-14.51,集中于-10~-6;厂坝岩体的ε_(Hf)(t)为-5.17~-14.51,集中于-12~-6。在ε_(Hf)(t)-t图解中,ε_(Hf)(t)均在球粒陨石之下和古元古地壳演化线之上;二阶段模式年龄黄渚关岩体主要集中在1.8~2.1 Ga,厂坝岩体主要集中在2.0~2.2Ga,结合继承锆石年龄1932 Ma、2039 Ma,表明古元古代地层可能为岩体的源区之一,在黄渚关岩体发现的暗色包体说明岩浆在上升的过程中发生了壳-幔岩浆的混合。因此,笔者认为黄渚关、厂坝岩体起源于古老地壳重熔,并在上升的过程中与幔源岩浆发生一定比例混合。     

华北陆块北缘崇礼-赤城地区晚古生代花岗岩类的锆石年龄和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素组成

本文报道冀北崇礼-赤城地区晚古生代花岗岩类岩石的锆石U-Pb年龄和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素组成特征.它们出露在华北陆块北缘的构造单元内,侵位于中高级变质基底岩石红旗营子群中.锆石LA-ICP-MS定年结果表明,海流图花岗岩岩体记录了两期岩浆作用,即299±3Ma和254±11Ma;镇宁堡片麻状二长花岗岩和白花沟片麻状黑云母石英二长闪长岩分别形成于287±1Ma和252±3Ma.这些晚古生代花岗岩类岩石具有较低的初始~(87)Sr/~(86)Sr值(0.7062～0.7076)、低的ε_(Nd)(t)值(-18.1至-9.6)和古老的Nd亏损地幔模式年龄(2.49～1.87Ga).其锆石的ε~(Hf)(t)值变化在-13.2至-7.4之间,Hf平均地壳模式年龄值(T_(DM)~C)在2.15Ga至1.79Ga之间.锆石Hf同位素特征与全岩Nd同位素特征指示古老的华北陆块地壳物质是花岗岩浆的主要物源.在形成时代和地球化学特征上,崇礼-赤城地区晚古生代花岗岩与出露在东部丰宁-承德地区的花岗岩类岩石既有相似性,又有不同之处,可能代表华北陆块北缘不同构造背景下岩浆作用的产物.     

粤东田东钨锡多金属矿床花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素特征及其意义

田东钨锡多金属矿床位于粤东莲花山断裂带北东带,矿区出露多个岩性侵入岩。本文以田东钨锡多金属矿区三种花岗岩为研究对象,开展了LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年和Hf同位素特征研究。三种花岗岩岩性分别为中粒花岗岩、粗粒花岗岩、细粒黑云母花岗岩,分别获得锆石206 Pb/238 U加权平均年龄为191.5±0.9 Ma、158.0±1.3 Ma、140.5±0.8 Ma,表明矿区发生了多次岩浆活动事件,分别发生在早侏罗世、晚侏罗世和早白垩世。中粒花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于4.023~9.784,平均值为7.644,在εHf(t)-t图解上,εHf(t)值均在球粒陨石演化线之上,亏损地幔演化线之下,二阶段模式年龄介于611.0~974.9Ma,表明成岩物质主要来源于新生地壳部分熔融,还有幔源物质的加入。粗粒花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于-3.623~-0.120,平均值为-1.680。细粒黑云母花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于-5.358~-1.609,平均值为-3.577。在εHf(t)-t图解上,粗粒花岗岩和细粒黑云母花岗岩的εHf(t)值均落在球粒陨石演化线之下和中元古代地壳演化线之上,二阶段模式年龄分别介于1216.6~1438.5 Ma和1329.9~1422.5 Ma,表明成岩物质主要来源于中元古代古老地壳部分熔融,还有幔源物质的加入。     

内蒙赤峰楼子店拆离断层带下盘变形花岗质岩石的时代、成因及其地质意义——锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素证据

对内蒙赤峰楼子店拆离断层带下盘前人划为前寒武纪岩石的糜棱状花岗质岩石中锆石进行了U-Pb年龄测定和Hf同位素测试,结果显示其时代为晚古生代至中生代。楼子店扎兰营子片麻状花岗岩的锆石206Pb/238U年龄为253.6±1.2Ma,锆石εHf(t)值为-8.6～-14.6,锆石Hf同位素地壳模式年龄为1.8～2.2Ga;朝阳沟糜棱岩化片麻状花岗岩的锆石206Pb/238U年龄为150.43±0.79Ma,锆石εHf(t)值为-5.6～-14.9,锆石Hf同位素地壳模式年龄为1.6～2.1Ga;莫里海沟片麻状闪长岩的锆石206Pb/238U年龄为127.6±3.1Ma,锆石εHf(t)值为-5.1～-13.9,锆石Hf同位素地壳模式年龄为1.5～2.1Ga。不同岩性、不同形成年龄的3个样品的εHf(t)值主要为负值,说明这些岩石主要来自地壳岩石的部分熔融。2.2～1.5Ga的锆石Hf同位素两阶段模式年龄表明它们可能主要来源于华北克拉通下地壳物质的部分熔融。结合该区已经获得的锆石U-Pb年龄,将该区古生代至中生代花岗质岩浆作用划分为4个时期:早石炭世(327Ma)、二叠纪(285～252Ma)、中三叠世—早侏罗世(241～184Ma)、中侏罗世—早白垩世(163～125Ma)。早石炭世喇嘛洞混合花岗岩的产出对应于古亚洲洋古生代向南俯冲于华北板块的时期,二叠纪花岗岩是古亚洲洋最后闭合、蒙古弧与华北陆块北缘拼合与伸展有关的岩浆活动的产物,大面积的中三叠世—早侏罗世的花岗岩是西伯利亚与华北陆块碰撞后地壳伸展的记录,中侏罗世—早白垩世(163～125Ma)岩浆活动则发育在伸展构造背景中,与岩石圈减薄存在密切的成因联系。这些新年龄资料将为华北陆块北缘古生代—中生代的地质构造演化提供重要的年代学制约。     

皖南谭山岩体成因:年代学和地球化学制约

皖南地区广泛发育燕山期岩浆岩,可以划分为早、晚两个阶段,年龄分别为152~136 Ma和136~122 Ma。谭山岩体是其中一个出露面积较大的复式岩体,主要发育两个侵入期次,分别以二长花岗岩和钾长花岗岩为主。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年获得二长花岗岩的成岩年龄为128.5±1.7~126.7±1.7 Ma,而钾长花岗岩形成年龄为128.2±1.6 Ma,均为晚阶段岩浆活动的产物。谭山岩体两种类型的岩性均表现出富碱、富铁、高Ga/Al比值、强烈亏损Ba、Sr,并具显著的Eu负异常,具有A型花岗岩的地球化学特征。两类岩石中锆石具有相似的Hf-O同位素组成,ε_(Hf)(t)值变化范围介于-8.04~-2.47之间,δ~(18)O值介于8.2‰~9.6‰之间,Hf-O同位素组成与下扬子广泛发育的新元古代地体中的锆石Hf-O同位素变化范围基本一致,指示谭山岩体的岩浆起源于高温低压环境,主体为下扬子中元古代增生地壳深熔作用的产物,并有少量地幔物质的混合,指示本地区在燕山期晚阶段岩浆作用期间处在强烈拉张的构造背景。     

满洲里南部中生代花岗岩的锆石U--Pb年龄及Hf同位素特征

满洲里南部地区花岗岩主要由碱长花岗岩、正长花岗岩、二长花岗岩及花岗斑岩组成。采用LA--ICP--MS技术,对满洲里南部花岗岩进行的锆石U--Pb年龄测定表明,该区中生代花岗岩浆活动分为3期:中—晚三叠世(208~239 Ma)、早侏罗世(179~185 Ma)和晚侏罗世—早白垩世(137~151 Ma),与整个大兴安岭中生代花岗岩的年代学格架基本一致,与东部的张广才岭—小兴安岭地区中生代岩浆活动时代也可以对比。锆石LA--MC--ICP--MS Hf同位素研究显示,本区中生代花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)多数为+0.7~+9.5,二阶段模式年龄为0.6~1.2 Ga,表明花岗岩浆主要源于中—新元古代增生的地壳物质。结合额尔古纳地块其他花岗岩的锆石Hf同位素资料,认为额尔古纳地块在中—新元古代时期曾发生一次重要的地壳增生事件,与兴安地块的地壳增生时间为新元古代—显生宙的特点不同。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.