Continental crustal growth and the supercontinental cycle: evidence from the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Studies of supercontinental cycle are mainly concentrated on the assembly, breakup and dispersal of supercontinents, and studies of continental crustal growth largely on the growth and loss (recycling) of the crust. These two problems have long been studied separately from each other. The Paleozoic–Mesozoic granites in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt have commonly positive Nd values, implying large-scale continental crustal growth in the Phanerozoic. They coincided temporally and spatially with the Phanerozoic Pangea supercontinental cycle, and overlapped in space with the P-wave high-V anomalies and calculated positions of subducted slabs for the last 180 Ma, all this suggests that the Phanerozoic Laurasia supercontinental assembly was accompanied by large-scale continental crustal growth in central Asia. Based on these observations, this paper proposes that there may be close and original correlations between a supercontinental cycle, continental crustal growth and catastrophic slab avalanches in the mantle. In this model we suggest that rapid continental crustal growth occurred during supercontinent assembly, whereas during supercontinental breakup and dispersal new additions of the crust were balanced by losses, resulting in a steady state system. Supercontinental cycle and continental crustal growth are both governed by changing patterns of mantle convection.     

The Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic Carbon Cycle Promoted the Evolution of a Habitable Earth

The carbon cycle is an important process that regulates Earth’s evolution. We compare two typical periods, in the Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic, in which many geological events occurred. It remains an open question when modern plate tectonics started on Earth and how it has influenced the carbon cycle through time. In the Paleoproterozoic, intense weathering in a highly CO₂ and CH₄ rich atmosphere caused more nutritional elements to be carried into the ocean.Terrestri...     

塔里木西北缘阿克苏地区大陆拉斑玄武岩对新元古代裂解事件的制约

塔里木西北缘新元古界苏盖特布拉克组不整合覆盖在前寒武纪阿克苏群蓝片岩及侵入其中的基性岩墙之上,苏盖特布拉克组底部发育两层玄武岩夹层,其形成时代和成因背景对认识塔里木板块前寒武纪构造演化及有关的超大陆循环和地球动力学过程具有重要意义。本文对这两层玄武岩进行了全岩地球化学和锆石U-Pb年代学研究。结果显示,玄武岩均属于大陆拉斑玄武岩系列,微量元素地球化学特性与典型的大陆溢流玄武岩非常相似,其岩浆来源于富集地幔,并遭受了一定程度的地壳混染作用。玄武岩中锆石的LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年龄分布在1945~755Ma,这些锆石均属于玄武岩浆上升过程中从地壳岩石捕获的继承锆石,记录了塔里木北缘元古代期间多期变质和岩浆事件。这一年龄范围表明,玄武岩形成的时代应晚于755Ma。本文的研究结果表明,阿克苏大陆拉斑玄武岩形成于板内裂谷环境,可能与新元古代Rodinia超大陆之下的地幔柱活动有关,是塔里木板块从Rodinia超大陆裂解出来的直接证据。     

Evolution of the Neoproterozoic Delgo suture zone and crustal growth in Northern Sudan: geochemical and radiogenic isotope constraints

In the Delgo basement area of northern Sudan, low to medium grade metamorphosed volcanic, sedimentary and plutonic rocks are surrounded by high grade gneisses. A NNE-SSW trending suture zone can be defined by the lithological, chemical and structural characteristics of several distinct units. The early Proterozoic gneiss terrain is overlain by metasedimentary units, the metamorphism of which has been dated by the Sm-Nd whole rock-mineral technique (702 ± 27 Ma in the west, 592 ± 16 Ma in the east). In the central part, the Abu Sari volcanic rocks show geochemical signatures of formation at an arc, with a protracted tholeiitic, calc-alkaline and shoshonitic evolution. The overlying El Hamri ophiolite contains chemical features of a back-arc tectonic environments. The ophiolite was dated by the Sm-Nd whole rock method on metagabbros at 752 ± 48 Ma. The further extension of this oceanic basin into the Jebel Rahib in the south-west was dated at 707 ± 54 Ma (Sm-Nd whole rock and minerals).Widespread suite of syn-tectonic granitoid intrusives displays subduction-related characteristics. They where emplaced between 650 to 760 Ma (Pb-zircon evaporation method). Their Nd and Sr isotopic compositions indicate a changing pattern of island arc to active continental margin character along an east-west transect and suggest a west to north-west dipping subduction zone. All units were juxtaposed at the minimum age of 600 Ma and rearranged during an extensional event, which was dated by the Rb-Sr thin slab technique (546 ± 19 Ma) on a migmatite. The Delgo suture provides evidence of a complex terrane pattern in north-east Africa and crustal growth during the Pan-African event by the addition of oceanic material to pre-existing continental crust.     

The Neoproterozoic Malani magmatism of the northwestern Indian shield: implications for crust-building processes

Malani is the largest event of anorogenic felsic magmatism (covering ∼50, 000 km²) in India. This magmatic activity took place at ∼750 Ma post-dating the Erinpura granite (850 Ma) and ended prior to Marwar Supergroup (680 Ma) sedimentation. Malani eruptions occurred mostly on land, but locally sub-aqueous conditions are shown by the presence of conglomerate, grits and pillow lava. The Malani rocks do not show any type of regional deformation effects. The Malanis are characterised by bimodal volcanism with a dominant felsic component, followed by granitic plutonism and a terminal dyke phase. An angular unconformity between Malani lavas and basement is observed, with the presence of conglomerate at Sindreth, Diri, and Kankani. This indicates that the crust was quite stable and peneplained prior to the Malani activity. Similarly, the absence of any thrust zone, tectonic mélange and tectonised contact of the Malanis with the basement goes against a plate subduction setting for their genesis. After the closure of orogenic cycles in the Aravalli craton of the northwestern shield, this anorogenic intraplate magmatic activity took place in a cratonic rift setting under an extensional tectonic regime.     

大别山北淮阳带西段新元古代浅变质岩片的岩石组成及其大地构造意义

大量的野外地质调查、室内岩石薄片观察和锆石U Pb定年结果表明,大别山北淮阳带西段原“定远组”奥陶纪变质火山岩中新元古代浅变质岩片至少包含两类岩石,即750～720Ma的变质花岗岩和635 Ma的变质辉长岩。其中,变质花岗岩的形成时代与北淮阳带东段庐镇关杂岩的形成时代一致。这两类新元古代浅变质岩石都经过了强烈的构造变形和绿帘角闪岩相变质作用,以构造透镜体或岩片形式产于奥陶纪的变质火山岩带（原“定远组”）中,并且与华南陆块北缘湖北随州—枣阳一带发育的2期大规模新元古代中、晚期基性岩墙群和花岗岩的时代以及大别山超高压岩石的原岩时代一致。这些成果进一步证明,它们可能是印支期华南陆块发生俯冲的初始阶段陆壳内部最早被拆离、解耦的岩片,并在南、北陆块汇聚、碰撞及造山过程中被推覆到华北陆块南缘古生代浅变质岩系之上。     

Petrogenesis and tectonic significance of Neoproterozoic meta-basites and meta-granitoids within the central Dabie UHP zone,China: Geochronological and geochemical constraints

A combined geochemical (whole-rock elements and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes, zircon trace elements and Hf isotopes) and geochronological (zircon U–Pb ages) study was carried out on the relatively low-grade meta-basites and meta-granitoids from Longjingguan within the central Dabie ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic zone, east-central China. Zircon investigations indicate that the meta-basites were formed at ∼772 Ma and subsequently experienced granulite-facies metamorphism at ∼768 Ma and a later thermal overprint at ∼746 Ma, while the meta-granitoids recorded three groups of zircon ages at ca. 819 Ma, 784 Ma and 746 Ma. The meta-granitoids can be subdivided into low-Si and high-Si types, and they were derived from mid-Neoproterozoic partial melting of the Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic metamorphic basement rocks of the South China Block, respectively. These Neoproterozoic zircon ages are consistent with the protolith ages of the Dabie Triassic UHP meta-igneous rocks. In addition, the low-grade rocks have bulk-rock Pb isotope compositions overlapping with the UHP meta-igneous rocks. Therefore, the low-grade meta-basites and meta-granitoids could be interpreted as counterparts of the UHP meta-igneous rocks in this area, suggesting the same petrogenesis for their protoliths in the Neoproterozoic.Trace element patterns indicate that the low-grade rocks have better preserved their protolith compositions than their equivalent UHP rocks, and thus they are more suitable for elucidating the Neoproterozoic evolution of the northern margin of the South China Block. Zircon ages combined with geochemical features strongly suggest that the protoliths of the meta-granitoids and meta-basites were formed in a magmatic arc and a continental rifting setting, respectively. More specifically, the granitoids derived from partial melting of Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic basement materials at ∼819 Ma in a magmatic arc setting, whereas the precursors of the meta-basites are products of a continental rifting event at about 784 to 772 Ma. The obtained results provide new geochronological and geochemical constraints for the Neoproterozoic evolution of the northern margin of the South China Block, which can further contribute to the understanding of the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia.     

Mid-Late Neoproterozoic rift-related volcanic rocks in China: Geological records of rifting and break-up of Rodinia

Early Cambrian and Mid-Late Neoproterozoic volcanic rocks in China are widespread on several Precambrian continental blocks,which had aggregated to form part of the Rodinia supercontinent by ca.900 Ma....     

新元古代“雪球”事件对海水碳、硫同位素组成的影响

在新元古代晚期地球上曾发生过全球性的冰川作用，一些学者称之为“雪球”事件。在新元古代“雪球”事件前后，古海水的C、S同位素组成都出现了非常大的变化，在“雪球”之前海水中的碳酸盐非常富集^13C，在“雪球”期间和紧随其之后贫^13C，然后δ^13C值出现了高达10‰的正漂移；在“雪球”开始之前古海水硫酸盐的δ^34S值呈逐渐降低的变化特征，紧随“雪球”之后古海水硫酸盐的δ^34S值出现了超过20‰的正漂移，达到地质史上的最高值，同期形成的硫化物具有异常高的δ^34S值。“雪球”事件前后古海水C、S同位素组成的大幅度变化，是由“雪球”前后全球环境的剧烈变化引起的。“雪球”前后海水C、S同位素的大幅度变化是与“雪球”有关的特殊环境条件作用的结果，也是“雪球”事件存在的有力证据。     

苏鲁造山带胶东区段花岗片麻岩类的常量与微量元素地球化学：扬子克拉通北缘新元古代活动大陆边缘的证据

胶东东部地区的基底片麻岩以牟平-海阳断裂为界,两侧在岩性组合和地球化学性质上完全不同,本文认为该断裂应代表苏鲁造山带的西北边界（北段）。断裂西侧岩性包括花岗闪长质、奥长花岗质和花岗质,地球化学上表现为低硅（SiO2：64．16～71．76％）、高铝（Al2O3=15．60-18．51％）、显著的Ba和Sr正异常、强烈的稀土元素分馏程度（LaN／YbN=15．77～68．19）和贫重稀土元素（YbN=2．9-4．4）、Eu异常不明显（δEu=0．86～1．02）,具典型的太古代高铝TTG岩石组合的特征。而东侧新元古代的基底片麻岩从地球化学上可分为高钾的Ⅰ型花岗质片麻岩和富钠的A型花岗质片麻岩。前者总体表现为富钾（K2O／Na2O比接近或大于1）和亚铝质,强烈亏损Sr、Nb和Ta,轻稀土元素之间的分馏程度强（LaN／SmN=4．21～5．37）,而重稀土元素之间几乎无分馏（GdN／YbN：0．78～1．54）,负Eu异常较强（δEu=0．47～0．61）,岩石地球化学特征显示它们的原岩类似于活动大陆边缘的Ⅰ型花岗岩类。而后者则以偏碱和富钠（Na2O／K2O=1．06～1.77）,高Y（20.4～52．9μg／g）、Zr（218～39μg/g）、Ga（18．8～22．9μg／g）及稀土元素丰度为特征,稀土元素分馏程度强（LaN／YbN=11．30～19．09）,弱到中等程度的负Eu异常（δEu=0．94～0．65）,强烈亏损Sr为显著特征,Nb和Ta相对于La也强烈亏损,而Ba则表现出明显的正异常。推测Ⅰ型花岗岩是在与俯冲有关的构造环境下,压力0．8～1．0Gpa条件下,由受俯冲板片脱水交代的镁铁质下地壳（26～33km）部分熔融形成的。而A型花岗岩则是在Ⅰ型花岗质岩浆形成后,由脱水的紫苏辉石质残留下地壳在温度大于900℃的条件下再一次部分熔融形成的。相对于Ⅰ型花岗岩,A型花岗岩中可能有更多的大洋岩石圈的组份被卷入。     

Neoproterozoic adakitic plutons in the northern margin of the Yangtze Block, China: Partial melting of a thickened lower crust and implications for secular crustal evolution

Numerous Neoproterozoic felsic and mafic–ultramafic intrusions occur in the Hannan region at the northern margin of the Yangtze Block. Among these, the Wudumen and Erliba plutons consist of granodiorites and have SHRIMP zircon U–Pb ages of  735 Ma. The rocks have high K₂O (0.8–3.6 wt.%) and Na₂O (4.4–6.4 wt.%) and low MgO (0.4–1.7 wt.%). They also have high Sr/Y (32–209) and (La/Yb)_n ratios (4.4–38.6). Their εNd values range from − 0.41 to − 0.92 and zircon initial ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios from 0.282353 to 0.282581. These geochemical features are similar to those of adakitic rocks produced by partial melting of a thickened lower crust. Our new analytical results, combined with the occurrence of voluminous arc-related mafic–ultramafic intrusions emplaced before 740 Ma, lead us to propose that the crustal evolution in the northern margin of the Yangtze Block during Neoproterozoic involved: (1) rapid crustal growth and thickening by underplating of mafic magmas from the mantle which was modified by materials coming from the subducting oceanic slab from  1.0 to  0.74 Ga, and (2) partial melting of the thickened lower crust due to a thermal anomaly induced by upwelling of asthenosphere through an oceanic slab window, producing the  735 Ma adakitic Wudumen and Erliba plutons. Our model suggests that the crustal thickness was more than 50 km at the northern margin of the Yangtze Block at  735 Ma, and rule out the possibility of a mantle plume impact causing the > 735 Ma magmatism in the region.     

Neoproterozoic accretionary and collisional events on the western margin of the Siberian craton: new geological and geochronological evidence from the Yenisey Ridge

The geological, structural and tectonic evolutions of the Yenisey Ridge fold-and-thrust belt are discussed in the context of the western margin of the Siberian craton during the Neoproterozoic. Previous work in the Yenisey Ridge had led to the interpretation that the fold belt is composed of high-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks comprising an Archean and Paleoproterozoic basement with an unconformably overlying Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic cover, which was mainly metamorphosed under greenschist-facies conditions. Based on the existing data and new geological and zircon U–Pb data, we recognize several terranes of different age and composition that were assembled during Neoproterozoic collisional–accretional processes on the western margin of the Siberian craton. We suggest that there were three main Neoproterozoic tectonic events involved in the formation of the Yenisey Ridge fold-and-thrust belt at 880–860 Ma, 760–720 Ma and 700–630 Ma. On the basis of new geochronological and petrological data, we propose that the Yeruda and Teya granites (880–860 Ma) were formed as a result of the first event, which could have occurred in the Central Angara terrane before it collided with Siberia. We also propose that the Cherimba, Ayakhta, Garevka and Glushikha granites (760–720 Ma) were formed as a result of this collision. The third event (700–630 Ma) is fixed by the age of island-arc and ophiolite complexes and their obduction onto the Siberian craton margin. We conclude by discussing correlation of these complexes with those in other belts on the margin of the Siberian craton.     

勉略构造带新元古代洋盆俯冲作用：来自略阳地区纸房沟岩片火山岩锆石U- Pb年龄和Lu- Hf同位素的证据

纸房沟岩片位于勉略构造带略阳地区。通过细致的岩石学和地球化学研究,将纸房沟岩片内的火山岩分为拉斑玄武岩系列（Ⅰ类）和钙碱性火山岩系列（Ⅱ类）。Ⅰ类火山岩稀土配分曲线左倾,富Na贫P,整体具有N- MORB特点,形成于洋脊构造环境。相比Ⅰ类火山岩,Ⅱ类火山岩具有更高的SiO2(49.02％~61.86％)和K2O(0.32％~1.55％)含量,相对亏损Nb、Ta、P和Ti,形成于陆缘弧构造环境。Ⅱ类火山岩锆石Lu- Hf同位素测试结果显示,εHf(t)值主体为负值,介于-8.01~+0.77,表明其主要为古老地壳物质熔融成因。Ⅱ类火山岩LA- ICP- MS锆石U- Pb测年结果为854±3Ma(MSWD=0.12, n=30)、844±4Ma (MSWD=0.03, n=15),表明纸房沟岩片火山岩结晶时代为新元古代早中期。综合前人成果认为,纸房沟岩片火山岩为新元古代勉略洋盆俯冲的产物,俯冲作用一直持续到800Ma左右,该俯冲过程很可能是对全球性Rodinia超大陆聚合事件的响应。     

Palaeoenvironments and weathering regime of the Neoproterozoic Squantum ‘Tillite’, Boston Basin: no evidence of a snowball Earth

The snowball Earth hypothesis describes episodes of Neoproterozoic global glaciations, when ice sheets reached sea‐level, the ocean froze to great depth and biota were decimated, accompanied by a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle. Recent studies of sedimentary successions and Earth systems modelling, however, have brought the hypothesis under considerable debate. The Squantum ‘Tillite’ (Boston Basin, USA), is one of the best constrained snowball Earth successions with respect to age and palaeogeography, and it is suitable to test the hypothesis for the Gaskiers glaciation. The approach used here was to assess the palaeoenvironmental conditions at the type locality of the Squantum Member through an analysis of sedimentary facies and weathering regime (chemical index of alteration). The stratigraphic succession with a total thickness of ca 330 m documents both glacial and non‐glacial depositional environments with a cool‐temperate glacial to temperate non‐glacial climate weathering regime. The base of the succession is composed of thin diamictites and mudstones that carry evidence of sedimentation from floating glacial ice, interbedded with inner shelf sandstones and mudstones. Thicker diamictites interbedded with thin sandstones mark the onset of gravity flow activity, followed by graded sandstones documenting channellized mass gravity flow events. An upward decrease in terrigenous supply is evident, culminating in deep‐water mudstones with a non‐glacial chemical weathering signal. Renewed terrigenous supply and iceberg sedimentation is evident at the top of the succession, beyond which exposure is lost. The glacially influenced sedimentary facies at Squantum Head are more consistent with meltwater dominated alpine glaciation or small local ice caps. The chemical index of alteration values of 61 to 75 for the non‐volcanic rocks requires significant exposure of land surfaces to allow chemical weathering. Therefore, extreme snowball Earth conditions with a complete shutdown of the hydrological cycle do not seem to apply to the Gaskiers glaciation.     

The Cerro Olivo Complex: a pre-collisional Neoproterozoic magmatic arc in Eastern Uruguay

The Cerro Olivo Complex is one of the few occurrences of the basement rocks in the Dom Feliciano Belt. It contains migmatitic paragneisses and orthogneisses that host granites of ca. 600–540 Ma Aiguá Batholith. The main orthogneisses are rich in orthopyroxene + Ca-plagioclase (Cerro Bori unit), but K-feldspar augen gneisses are also common (Centinela-Punta del Este unit). The paragneisses (Chafalote unit) are semi-pelitic migmatites that contain restites of metapelites, quartzites, amphibolites, and calc-silicate rocks. A clockwise pressure–temperature–time (P–T-t) path and two deformational events affected the Cerro Olivo Complex rocks. Granulitic high-pressure (HP)–high-temperature (HT) peak conditions were followed by low pressure (LP)–HT decompression. The first deformation (K₁) developed an E–W gneissic foliation and westward-stretching lineations, whereas the second (K₂) produced NS to NE–SW low-temperature mylonitic foliation and southward-stretching lineations. New SHRIMP U–Pb data from zircon cores in magmatic textural domains yield an intrusive age of 782 ± 7 million years for the Cerro Bori unit. The zircon rims have an age of 657 ± 7 million years, reflecting a younger partial melting event. Inherited ages in zircon xenocrysts span from 2655 to 768 million years, but are mostly ca. 1.0–1.2 thousand million years old. Bulk-rock geochemistry indicates a magmatic arc setting for the source rocks. The Cerro Bori unit represents calk-alkaline tonalitic and granodioritic rocks mixed with minor gabbros; in contrast, the Centinela unit consists of post-orogenic granites. A continental magmatic arc developed between ca. 800 and 770 Ma attending convergence of the Kalahari and Rio de la Plata palaeocontinents, but prior to their collision.     

Natural deformation related to serpentinisation of an ultramafic inclusion within a continental shear zone: The key role of fluids

The role of fluids in the deformation of continental serpentinites is investigated from structural, microstructural and petrographic analyses applied to a km-scale porphyroclast mantled in a viscous matrix of amphibolites. The clast is sited within a shear zone of the Palaeozoic Maures massif, France. Syntectonic fluid–rock interactions occurred from km to mm scales, at first on the clast borders (along the main rheological boundaries) then within the clast. They are accommodated macroscopically by slickenfibers faults and microscopically by shear microcracks within crack-seal veins, typifying an intermediate, brittle–ductile behaviour of serpentinites. Three main stages of deformation–serpentinisation processes occurred in relation with the left-lateral movement of the hosted shear zone. They developed under metamorphic conditions evolving from amphibolites to green-schists facies conditions ( 400 MPa/550 °C to  200 MPa/< 300 °C), as inferred from the surrounding sheared amphibolites. Deformation and serpentinisation increase through time although fluid pressure decreases. If the shape of the inclusion and its orientation relative to the shear zone mainly controlled the deformation pattern though time (P then R' shears), fluid pressure is required for starting deformation–serpentinisation processes along inherited anisotropy planes. Whatever the origin of fluids, they play a key role all along the deformation processes by influencing stress states within the shear zone at the onset of deformation and by changing at various scales and through time behaviour of the rock, depending of the intensity of serpentinisation and the rate of deformation.     

锶、碳同位素演化在新元古代地层定年中的应用——以胶辽徐淮地层分区为例

根据Sr、C同位素地层学原理，利用胶辽徐淮地区晚前寒武纪地层Sr、C同位素数据，与国际上已有的Sr、C同位素演化曲线对比，结果表明，胶辽徐淮地区晚前寒武纪地层是同一时期的沉积物，沉积主体之间Sr、C同位素比值的对比性很好，沉积时限约在750-860Ma之间，并延续到震旦纪，为北方青白口纪及其后的沉积。同时也表明，Sr、C同位素演化相结合是解决缺乏大化石的晚前寒武纪地层对比的有效方法。     

The Neoproterozoic Kolet Um Kharit bimodal metavolcanic rocks, south Eastern Desert, Egypt: a case of enrichment from plume interaction?

Neoproterozoic metavolcanic rocks of Kolet Um Kharit (KUKh) in the southern Eastern Desert of Egypt have been traditionally regarded as a bimodal island-arc sequence. However, geological and geochemical arguments presented here make this interpretation doubtful. Geochemically, these rocks are classified into mafic (tholeiitic basalts) and felsic (high-K rhyodacites to rhyolites) groups. Both the KUKh mafic and felsic metavolcanic rocks show similar geochemical characteristics, implying a genetic link. They have comparable trace element ratios, such as Zr/Nb (27–30 vs. 20–36), Y/Nb (5.44–6.25 vs. 5.05–5.9), K/Rb (577–1164 vs. 573–937), Ba/La (4.29–25–9 vs. 11.4–16.2), Nb/Yb (1.82–2.03 vs. 1.76–1.99). Similarly both groups have parallel LREE-enriched patterns (La/Yb_CN=2.37–2.81 vs. 2.55–3.17); and negative Nb and Ta anomalies (Nb/La_pm=0.51–0.58 vs. 0.45–0.52 and Ta/La_pm=0.51–0.62 vs. 0.49–0.55). The observed negative Nb and Ta anomalies in the KUKh metavolcanic rocks cannot be attributed to crustal contamination or fractional crystallization. These rocks could represent either a remnant of break-up LIP or were derived from an enriched mantle source containing subduction components beneath an intraoceanic back-arc basin. The recognition of the KUKh rocks as derived from an enriched mantle source revives interest in models that involve enrichment from “plume” interaction during the evolution of the Arabian-Nubian Shield.     

The Xiong'er volcanic belt at the southern margin of the North China Craton: Petrographic and geochemical evidence for its outboard position in the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Columbia Supercontinent

The Xiong'er volcanic belt, covering an area of more than 60,000 km² along the southern margin of the North China Craton, has long been considered an intra-continental rift zone and recently interpreted as part of a large igneous province formed by a mantle plume that led to the breakup of the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia. However, such interpretations cannot be accommodated by lithology, mineralogy, geochemistry and geochronology of the volcanic rocks in the belt. Lithologically, the Xiong'er volcanic belt is dominated by basaltic andesite and andesite, with minor dacite and rhyolite, different from rock associations related to continental rifts or mantle plumes, which are generally bimodal and dominated by mafic components. However, they are remarkably similar to those rock associations in modern continental margin arcs. In some of the basaltic andesites and andesites, amphibole is a common phenocryst phase, suggesting the involvement of H₂O-rich fluids in the petrogenesis of the Xiong'er volcanic rocks. Geochemically, the Xiong'er volcanic rocks fall in the calc-alkaline series, and in most tectono-magmatic discrimination diagrams, the majority of the Xiong'er volcanic rocks show affinities to magmatic arcs. In the primitive mantle normalized trace-element diagrams, the Xiong'er volcanic rocks show enrichments in the LILE and LREE, and negative Nb–Ta–Ti anomalies, similar to arc-related volcanic rocks produced by the hydrous melting of metasomatized mantle wedge. Nd-isotope compositions of the Xiong'er volcanic rocks suggest that 5–15% older crust has been transferred into the upper lithospheric mantle by subduction-related recycling during Archean to Paleoproterozoic time. Available SHRIMP and LA-ICP-MS U–Pb zircon age data indicate that the Xiong'er volcanic rocks erupted intermittently over a protracted interval from 1.78 Ga, through 1.76–1.75 Ga and 1.65 Ga, to 1.45 Ga, though the major phase of the volcanism occurred at 1.78–1.75 Ga. Such multiple and intermittent volcanism is inconsistent with a mantle plume-driven rifting event, but is not uncommon in ancient and existing continental margin arcs. Taken together, the Xiong'er volcanic belt was most likely a Paleo-Mesoproterozoic continental magmatic arc that formed at the southern margin of the North China Craton. Similar Paleo-Mesoproterozoic continental magmatic arcs were also present at the southern and southeastern margins of Laurentia, the southern margin of Baltica, the northwestern margin of Amonzonia, and the southern and eastern margins of the North Australia Craton, which are considered to represent subduction-related episodic outbuilding on the continental margins of the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia. Therefore, in any configuration of the supercontinent Columbia, the southern margin of the North China Craton could not have been connected to any other continental block as proposed in a recent configuration, but must have faced an open ocean whose lithosphere was subducted beneath the southern margin of the North China Craton.     

A speculation on the structure of the D″ layer: The growth of anti-crust at the core–mantle boundary through the subduction history of the Earth

The growth curve of the continental crust shows that large amounts of continental crust formed in the early part of the Earth history are missing. In order to test a hypothesis that the former crust was subducted to the deep mantle, we performed phase assemblage analysis in the systems of mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB), anorthosite, and tonalite–trondhjemite–granite (TTG) down to the core–mantle boundary (CMB) conditions. Results show that all these materials can be subducted to the CMB leading to the development of a compositional layering in the D″ layer. We speculate that there could be five layers of FeO-enriched melt from partial melting of MORB, MORB crust, anorthosite, TTG, and slab or mantle peridotite in ascending order. Although the polymorphic transformation of perovskite to post-perovskite in (Mg,Fe)SiO₃ may explain the seismic discontinuity at the top of the D″ layer (D″ discontinuity), the effects of solid solution on the sharpness of the transformation suggest that the compositional layering is more plausible for the origin of the D″ discontinuity. The D″ layer can be an “anti-crust” made up mostly of TTG + anorthosite derived from the former continental crust. Tectonic style of the anti-crust at the CMB is similar to that at the surface. At both places, chemically distinct layers are density stratified and are also characterized by the processes of accretion, magmatism, and metasomatism.