Providing scientific visualization for spatial data analysis: Criteria and an assessment of SAGE

A consistent theme in recent work on developing exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) has been the importance attached to visualization techniques, particularly following the pioneering development of packages such as SPIDER and REGARD (Haslett et al. 1990).  The focus on visual techniques is often justified in two ways: (a) the power of modern graphical interfaces means that graphics is no longer a way of simply presenting results in the form of maps or graphs, but a tool for the extraction of information from data; (b) graphical, exploratory methods are felt to be more intuitive for non-specialists to use than methods of numerical spatial statistics enabling wider participation in the process of getting data insights. However, little work has been done to decide which visualization tools might be needed to support ESDA, or how they can be most effectively implemented.  This paper briefly reviews a theoretical framework that has been suggested for addressing these issues, which comprises two elements: firstly a data model, based on the distinction between rough and smooth properties of spatial data, that defines what an analyst is looking for in data (Haining et al. 1998) and secondly a theoretical model for assessing the quality of visualisation tools (Cleveland 1994). The emphasis of this paper is the use of the theoretical framework to structure an assessment of SAGE, a software system that has been written for the spatial statistical analysis (including both exploratory and confirmatory data analysis) of area based data linked to a GIS. The aim of the assessment is to identify the desirable features of the system (that might be employed in other systems) whilst also highlighting what the additional requirements are thereby contributing to the development of systems for ESDA that contain good quality scientific visualization tools for exploratory spatial data analysis. Received: 30 September 1998/Accepted: 17 September 1999     

Seamless integration of spatial statistics and GIS: The S-PLUS for ArcView and the S+Grassland Links

The extension of the functional capacity of geographic information systems (GIS) with tools for statistical analysis in general and exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA) in particular has been an increasingly active area of research in recent years. In this paper, two operational implementations that combine the functionality of spatial data analysis software with a GIS are considered more closely. They consist of linkages between the S-PLUS software for data analysis and two different GIS implementations, the ArcView desktop system, which is mostly vector-oriented, and the primarily raster-based Grassland open GIS environment. We emphasize conceptual and technical issues related to the software implementation of these approaches and suggest future directions for linking spatial statistics and GIS. Received: 14 January 1999 / Accepted: 11 May 1999     

From fields to objects: A review of geographic boundary analysis

Geographic boundary analysis is a relatively new approach unfamiliar to many spatial analysts. It is best viewed as a technique for defining objects – geographic boundaries – on spatial fields, and for evaluating the statistical significance of characteristics of those boundary objects. This is accomplished using null spatial models representative of the spatial processes expected in the absence of boundary-generating phenomena. Close ties to the object-field dialectic eminently suit boundary analysis to GIS data. The majority of existing spatial methods are field-based in that they describe, estimate, or predict how attributes (variables defining the field) vary through geographic space. Such methods are appropriate for field representations but not object representations. As the object-field paradigm gains currency in geographic information science, appropriate techniques for the statistical analysis of objects are required. The methods reviewed in this paper are a promising foundation. Geographic boundary analysis is clearly a valuable addition to the spatial statistical toolbox.? This paper presents the philosophy of, and motivations for geographic boundary analysis. It defines commonly used statistics for quantifying boundaries and their characteristics, as well as simulation procedures for evaluating their significance. We review applications of these techniques, with the objective of making this promising approach accessible to the GIS-spatial analysis community. We also describe the implementation of these methods within geographic boundary analysis software: GEM. Received: 22 March 1999 / Accepted: 7 September 1999     

R数据统计分析语言及其在GIS中的应用

R数据统计分析软件是Linux平台下的一个优秀的数据统计软件,现在也已提供了在Windows平台下的安装版本并且具有简单的图形用户界面。它使用简单、功能强大且完全免费,因此与SPSS、SAS等较为流行的数据统计分析软件相比具有与一定的经济优势。同时,R语言的灵活性、可扩充性使得R能很容易地应用到GIS领域,在GIS空间数据分析、地统计分析以及图像处理等方面具有很好的应用前景。本文概要介绍了R语言的一些功能特点及其与GIS开源软件GRASS的集成。     

空间统计分析与GIS在区域经济分析中的应用

首先概述了度量空间自相关、空间关联的一些空间统计分析方法以及识别区域空间关联的标准,然后探讨了将空间统计分析嵌入到一个GIS系统中的可行性,开发了一个分析空间关联的模块,并举例说明其在区域经济分析中的应用。     

Arc_Mat: a Matlab-based spatial data analysis toolbox

This article presents an overview of Arc_Mat, a Matlab-based spatial data analysis software package whose source code has been placed in the public domain. An earlier version of the Arc_Mat toolbox was developed to extract map polygon and database information from ESRI shapefiles and provide high quality mapping in the Matlab software environment. We discuss revisions to the toolbox that: utilize enhanced computing and graphing capabilities of more recent versions of Matlab, restructure the toolbox with object-oriented programming features, and provide more comprehensive functions for spatial data analysis. The Arc_Mat toolbox functionality includes basic choropleth mapping; exploratory spatial data analysis that provides exploratory views of spatial data through various graphs, for example, histogram, Moran scatterplot, three-dimensional scatterplot, density distribution plot, and parallel coordinate plots; and more formal spatial data modeling that draws on the extensive Spatial Econometrics Toolbox functions. A brief review of the design aspects of the revised Arc_Mat is described, and we provide some illustrative examples that highlight representative uses of the toolbox. Finally, we discuss programming with and customizing the Arc_Mat toolbox functionalities.     

Hotbeds of crime and the search for spatial accuracy

One of the most important aspects of spatial crime analysis is the identification of hotspots: areas of the highest crime concentration. This paper advances a methodology for hotspot detection based on a global moving window approach combined with the use of local statistics to define the hotspot limit. This technique generates hotspots that both follow the urban morphology of the crime distribution and ensures their spatial segregation. The hypothesis that police officers can construct an accurate perception of crime distribution from exposure to daily policing practices is used to demonstrate an application in the use of hotspot analysis. Significant regions generated from recorded crime data are compared with perceived local hotspots catalogued from surveys with police officers. Results from this study show two discrete types of hotspot, here termed hotpoints and hotbeds. The morphology of these crime hotpoints and hotbeds is discussed and possible causes documented. Received: 9 October 1998/Accepted: 22 September 1999     

GeoSurveillance: a GIS-based system for the detection and monitoring of spatial clusters

This article introduces a software package named GeoSurveillance that combines spatial statistical techniques and GIS routines to perform tests for the detection and monitoring of spatial clustering. GeoSurveillance provides both retrospective and prospective tests. While retrospective tests are applied to spatial data collected for a particular point in time, prospective tests attempt to incorporate the dynamic nature of spatial patterns via analyzing time-series data to detect emergent clusters as quickly as possible. This article will outline the structure of GeoSurveillance as well as describe the statistical cluster detection methods implemented in the software. It concludes with an illustration of the use of the software to analyze the spatial pattern of low birth weights in Los Angeles County, California.      

Developing Basic Design and Mathematical Framework for a Mobile Mapping System—a Case Study Using Available Sensors

There is a growing demand for technologies that support capturing of comprehensive and good quality 3D spatial data at a faster rate with low investment and minimal effort, while also causing least disturbance to other activities in the area. Mobile mapping systems (MMS), which are being developed in a few western countries, solve this problem but their import is highly expensive. While the components of a MMS are easily available off-the-shelf at lower cost, the main reason for their high cost is the intellectual property involved in the sensor design, integration, calibration, and the related software. Developing the intellectual property locally can bring down the cost of MMS to a large extent. Keeping this in mind, a MMS has been developed in this research using the locally available sensors. This paper describes the methodology to integrate navigation and mapping sensors including the developed calibration procedures. It further describes the time synchronization technique developed for multi-sensor data fusion and algorithms implemented by software package for data processing. The sensors integrated in the MMS include a standard GPS, IMU and a standard laser scanner. A Kalman filter is implemented to integrate the GPS and IMU data, which provides position and orientation information for the sensors. A simulation software package is also developed to verify, understand and develop the equations used in MMS. Field tests have been performed using the developed MMS and the results are shown for a few cases. Results validate the designed algorithms and indicate the successful development of the MMS, which has potential to be further developed and used in field. Though a number of papers are available on MMS, the thrust of this paper is to present a complete methodology for developing a MMS using locally available sensors. Unlike available papers, this paper outlines all aspects of design, calibration and operation, where each of these aspects is handled in a novel way as demanded by the available sensors. This is particularly useful for individuals or organizations interested in procuring sensor components off-the-shelf and develop their own (low cost) Mobile Mapping system.     

基于GIS与空间统计分析的可持续发展度量方法研究——以缅甸Myingyan District为例

利用空间信息系统所提供的强大空间数据处理和分析能力，并将之与统计分析软件包的统计分析功能进行有效的集成，建立了基于空间统计分析的可持续发展定量分析评价模型（ＳＢＳＡ）。从在缅甸中部Myingyan县的应用实例来看，该模型能够提示影响Myingyan县可持续发展能力的主导因子，通过对这些因子和可持续发展综合指数的定量化、空间化的分析，为政府部门规划区域综合发展方案，制定发展政策提供很好的决策支持。     

The Potential of Virtual Reality Technology for Analysis of Remotely Sensed Data: A Lidar Case Study

Abstract

Although the GIS community has been quick to exploit the advantages of virtual reality (VR) for display and analysis of spatial data, VR does not appear to have been exploited widely for remote sensing data analysis. A case study of high resolution lidar data acquired over a deciduous forest near Morgantown, WV was used to investigate the potential and limitations of current VR software for remote sensing analysis. The functionality within a standard remote sensing software package was found to provide a good overview of interpolated, smoothed lidar data, but was less useful for gridded data that had not been interpolated. With gridded data, it was possible to drape orthophotographs or other images over the lidar data, providing a useful method for investigating relationships between lidar and other data. Alternatively, using a commercial VR package, it was possible to view the original lidar point data, and thus visualize the multiple returns from within the canopy of each tree. The point data were preferable for identification of surfaces within the data cloud, especially the ground surface. For a fully integrated remote sensing VR package, functionality will be needed to link point and interpolated coverages, and also to enhance the interactive selection of data for further statistical analysis.     

A New GIScience Application for Visualized Natural Resources Management and Decision Support

This article presents two decision support plug‐ins in free GIS software: ArcGIS Explorer Desktop. The ubiquitous WebGIS Analysis Toolkit for Extensive Resources (uWATER) focuses on providing GIS analysis functions: spatial and attribute queries in the public services tool for users with limited access to commercial GIS software. The interface of uWATER is general enough to support decision‐making in numerous management issues in natural resources, economics and agriculture. The uWATER‐Pumping Assessment (uWATER‐PA) toolkit, on the other hand, is an extended package targeting the specific environmental issue of groundwater pumping impacts. The uWATER‐PA package is an excellent alternative to evaluating complex groundwater pumping assessment issues before investing significant time, labor, and funds in monitoring and detailed scientific study. It incorporates simulation of the physics of groundwater flow and user interaction into GIS software. A graphical user interface makes both data entry and interpretation of results intuitive to non‐technical individuals. Results are presented as colored drawdown maps and can be saved in GIS format for future dissemination. The impact of drawdown on existing wells can be characterized and mapped, through the use of uWATER's spatial query capabilities and the drawdown maps generated by uWATER‐PA.     

云GIS数据可视化与分析软件的设计与实现

在现代生活中,无论我们多么依赖网络空间,人与地理空间的联系永远不会断绝.政府和企业的各类业务运转也是如此,在科研课题、销售运营、客户维护等工作中,涉及的数据成千上万,大多也与地理数据紧密相关.因此,挖掘地理数据中隐含的信息,提高人们对地理位置的认知程度,并以此为基础,为各领域提供与决策相关的信息非常有意义.本文中介绍的超图云GIS数据洞察软件,是基于地理信息云平台,使用新一代Web技术搭建的云GIS数据可视化和分析软件.通过其将业务数据在地图上可视化展示,并结合统计图表和地理信息系统专业空间分析工具,洞察地理数据中隐含的趋势和内在关系,为多种业务决策提供支撑.本文介绍了该软件的设计与实现.     

大城市边缘区建设用地空间分布格局的定量化测度研究

选择北京市房山区平原地区作为分析样区，在GIS技术的支持下对建设用地的空间分布格局进行了定量化测度研究。分析数据显示，其分布与交通干线具有明显的空间相关，交通干线具有一定的“轴向”聚集和辐射效应。     

市县国土空间规划主体功能区划定方法研究

为了健全现行国土空间规划体系中市县尺度主体功能区的划定方法。该文以主体功能区基本理论为指导,综合地理国情信息中的地表现状数据与DEM数据,结合专题调查与经济社会统计数据等空间信息,利用GIS空间分析、多元统计分析、基于规则的分类模型等技术,研究细化上位主体功能区进行市县主体功能区划定的方法、指标与分类体系、与上位主体功能区的衔接机制。提出了一种基于局部功能单元的市县主体功能分区方法和流程。并以榆林市为实证研究对象,进行实证研究,划定了榆林市42920 km²的市县级主体功能分区。探索将主体功能分区的空间尺度延伸到具体的地理单元,发挥主体功能区在国土空间规划体系中基础性作用,为主体功能区战略格局在市县层面落地提供科学依据。     

Spatial analysis using clustering methods: Evaluating central point and median approaches

Spatial analysis is an important area of research which continues to make major contributions to the exploratory capabilities of geographical information systems. The use and application of classic clustering methods is being pursued as an exploratory approach for the analysis of spatially referenced data. Numerous potential clustering approaches exist, so research assessing the relative differences of these approaches is important. This paper evaluates the median and central points optimization based clustering approaches for use in the context of exploratory spatial data analysis. Functional and visual comparisons using three spatial applications across a range of cluster values are carried out. The empirical results suggest that these two clustering approaches identify very similar groupings. The significance of this finding is that the development of clustering tools for exploratory analysis may be limited to the median based approach given relative computational and solvability considerations. Received: 28 September 1998/Accepted: 9 August 1999     

利用残差统计检验评估区域GPS大地测量网解算方案

采用美国喷气推进实验室JPL发展的GIPSY软件解算区域GPS网，比较了固家精密星历和同时固定精密星历及卫星钟参数2种解算方案，残差统计检验表明前者的左中仍保留了部分未解出的信号而后者的残差接近于白噪声高斯分布，解算结果与ITRF96的比较和对重复率的统计表明，残差分布合理的解算较优，简单的线差统计检验的计算可提供重要的解算评估。     

The multiresolution character of collocation

 An interesting theoretical connection between the statistical (non-stochastic) collocation principle and the multiresolution/wavelet framework of signal approximation is presented. The rapid developments in multiresolution analysis theory over the past few years have provided very useful (theoretical and practical) tools for approximation and spectral studies of irregularly varying signals, thus opening new possibilities for `non-stationary' gravity field modeling. It is demonstrated that the classic multiresolution formalism according to Mallat's pioneering work lies at the very core of some of the general approximation principles traditionally used in physical geodesy problems. In particular, it is shown that the use of a spatio-statistical (non-probabilistic) minimum mean-square-error criterion for optimal linear estimation of deterministic signals, in conjunction with regularly gridded data, always gives rise to a generalized multiresolution analysis in the Hilbert space L <sup>2</sup>(R), under some mild constraints on the spatial covariance function and the power spectrum of the unknown field under consideration. Using the theory and the actual approximation algorithms associated with statistical collocation, a new constructive framework for building generalized multiresolution analyses in L <sup>2</sup>(R) is presented, without the need for the usual dyadic restriction that exists in classic wavelet theory. The multiresolution and `non-stationary' aspects of the statistical collocation approximation procedure are also discussed, and finally some conclusions and recommendations for future work are given. Received: 26 January 1999 / Accepted: 16 August 1999     

Application of GIS for land-use/land-cover change analysis in a mountainous terrain

Integration of remote sensing data with other spatial/non-spatial data was carried out using ARC/INFO software package. A simple classification technique was adopted for land cover/land-use change analyses in relation to elevation, slope, aspect and bio-climatic classes. Suitability assessment of land where agricultural extension occurred between 1963 and 1993 was made using GIS software package. Expansion of agriculture and was found to be maximum in 2200-2400 m elevation zone and 20–30° slope classes. When topographic aspects were considered expansion was maximum on south east and west facing slopes. The loss of vegetal cover is estimated to be 15 per cent between 1963–1993. However regeneration of forest was found to be maximum in elevation ranges of 1600–2000 metre and mostly having 20–30° average slope, Land deterioration over the two mapping periods was identified and strategies were suggested to mitigate the problem.