Estimating the Irish public's willingness to pay for more sustainable salmon produced by integrated multi-trophic aquaculture

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) has been put forward as a potential sustainable alternative to single fin fish species aquaculture. In IMTA, several species are combined in the production process. Integrating species has a conceivable dual advantage; the environmental impact can be lowered through nutrient cycling and from an economic perspective there is potential for increased efficiency, product diversification and a higher willingness to pay for more environmentally friendly produced salmon. This paper presents the results from a choice experiment which examines whether the Irish public is willing to pay a premium for “sustainably produced” farmed salmon from an IMTA process. Uniquely, an ecolabel was used in the design, based on familiar energy rating labels, to communicate the environmental pressure of fish farming to respondents. The experiment demonstrates that the Irish public has a willingness to pay a price premium for sustainability in salmon farming and for locally produced salmon.     

Media framing of aquaculture

Norway is the world's largest producer of farmed salmon. Aquaculture is the country's second largest export industry and thus vital for employment in coastal areas of Norway. The industry is dependent on public acceptance and good standing in local communities in order to gain access to new sites and to be able to sell its product. Public opinion (and assumptions about public opinion) on aquaculture may influence the industry's framework conditions and policy. Being located in coastal and rural areas, the industry must rely on the media to spread information to the public about the industry. Therefore, the media are an important source of information about farmed salmon, and the way the media present aquaculture issues has an impact on public opinion as well as authorities. This article examines how the aquaculture industry is portrayed in Norwegian newspapers and discusses how media topics and media framing may influence public opinion. The analysis shows that the most frequent topics covered in Norwegian newspapers are connected to the environment, aquaculture industry, and politics, where the concerns about the environment are dominant within the risk frame. The negative images portrayed by the media have a strong agenda-setting force and may skew public opinion to a narrow focus on environmental risks, influencing both the debate's content and the regulators’ increased emphasis on environmental risks. This is strengthened further by the focus on sustainability, where the focus is solely on the dimension of environment, making other sustainability dimensions less prominent in the media coverage.     

The economic impact of aquaculture expansion: An input-output approach

While the expansion of aquaculture production can confer positive economic impacts, under certain conditions, aquaculture can also have negative environmental impacts. Understanding the total economic impacts of aquaculture expansion is therefore necessary in order to make informed decisions when weighing economic considerations against environmental concerns. This paper considers the wider economic impacts, both direct and indirect of expansion in the Irish aquaculture industry. By disaggregating the aquaculture sector from Ireland's 2010 Input-Output table and calculating the resultant Leontief inverse matrix a number of economic multipliers for the aquaculture sector are estimated and used to calculate the potential indirect impacts of expansion. These multipliers are then used to estimate the economic impacts of reaching the targets set out in the recently published Irish national strategic plan for sustainable aquaculture, highlighting the potential for such an expansion to contribute to the rural economy.     

Trade intervention: Not a silver bullet to address environmental externalities in global aquaculture

Aquaculture has been the world’s fastest growing food production technology in recent decades, and continued growth in aquaculture production is predicted. While creating economic opportunity, aquaculture is also a new way of using eco-systems, and there is substantial evidence that aquaculture creates negative environmental externalities. Although the most effective way to address these externalities may be improved governance, this approach is often difficult because most aquaculture production takes place in developing countries with limited management capacity. The fact that a large part of aquaculture production is traded motivates substantial interest in the use of trade measures to reduce environmental impacts. However, the wide variety of species, production practices, and governance systems present in aquaculture makes it unlikely that general trade measures will achieve environmental objectives. Rather, there is a real risk that trade measures will reduce economic opportunity, raise new equity concerns, and impinge on public health with little or no environmental impact.     

A GIS modelling framework to evaluate marine spatial planning scenarios: Co-location of offshore wind farms and aquaculture in the German EEZ

The concept of co-location of marine areas receives an increased significance in the light of sustainable development in the already heavily used offshore marine realm. Within this study, different spatial co-location scenarios for the coupling of offshore aquacultures and wind farms are evaluated in order to support efficient and sustainable marine spatial management strategies. A Geographic Information System (GIS) and multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques were combined to index suitable co-sites in the German exclusive economic zone of the North Sea. The MCE was based on criteria such as temperature, salinity or oxygen. In total, 13 possible aquaculture candidates (seaweed, bivalves, fish and crustaceans) were selected for the scenario configuration. The GIS modelling framework proved to be powerful in defining potential co-location sites. The aquaculture candidate oarweed (Laminaria digitata) revealed the highest suitability scores at 10–20 m depth from April to June, followed by haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) at 20–30 m depth and dulse (Palmaria palmata) and Sea belt (Saccharina latissima) at 0–10 m depth between April and June. In summary, results showed several wind farms were de facto suitable sites for aquaculture since they exhibited high suitability scores for Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) systems combining fish species, bivalves and seaweeds. The present results illustrate how synergies may be realised between competing needs of both offshore wind energy and offshore IMTA in the German EEZ of the North Sea. This might offer guidance to stakeholders and assist decision-makers in determining the most suitable sites for pilot projects using IMTA techniques.     

Social acceptability of marine aquaculture: The use of survey-based methods for eliciting public and stakeholder preferences

The social acceptability of aquaculture is linked to its perceived environmental impact, and this clearly poses a challenge to policy makers in deciding what weight to attach to such a concern within a governance framework for the industry. Using salmon farming in Scotland as a case study, we have developed a survey-based approach to evaluating public and stakeholder attitudes towards the environmental performance of aquaculture. The survey of the general public finds marked regional variations in attitudes towards salmon farming, while the results of the stakeholder survey raise issues over how far the preferences of particular interest groups are truly representative of the community as a whole.     

Environmental analysis of the Norwegian fishery and aquaculture industry—A preliminary study focusing on farmed salmon

This article addresses the present status of seafood-oriented environmental methods and analyses, and pinpoints areas for further development. A recent study of the CO₂ emissions associated with the production of farmed salmon in Norway, following the life cycle from hatching to consumption, is presented. The study was initiated due to the increased focus on environmental impacts from food production among consumer organizations, retailers, and authorities. In general, several methods are being currently applied to measure environmental performance. Unfortunately, different methods provide quite different results. An additional challenge is that most of these methods were originally developed for land-based production. If assumptions about the performance of the seafood industry are established on the basis of incorrect information, consequences for both the management and the market level may not be desirable.     

Molecular and biochemical tricks of the research trade: -omics approaches in finfish aquaculture

Profitability of fish farming can be undermined by a suite of biological constraints. Effects of these constraints on the biology of the animal, the functioning of a tissue, or the quality of the final filleted product can be detected with very sensitive hi-tech approaches, grouped by the term ‘-omics’. These -omics technologies further present powerful tools for the genetic selection of diverse traits and, as such, will contribute substantially to the future development of the aquaculture sector. Sustainability issues of importance to the industry, such as environmental impacts, use of therapeutants, fish health management and fishmeal replacement, can again be aided, at least in part, through the effective use of -omics technologies. It thus appears that -omics technologies may be a key tool for the responsible growth of intensive aquaculture in the 21st century. In this paper we review the current status of -omics technologies and the potential for application within the aquaculture industry.     

The long and bumpy journey: Taiwan׳s aquaculture development and management

This paper presents an overview of Taiwan׳s aquaculture development and management, focusing on the transition of the industry and the current management measures that particularly address environmental effects, ecolabels and diversification into tourism and ornamental fish business. Since the late 1980s when Taiwan׳s aquaculture in its heyday was pounded by emergent environmental problems, a policy was established on enhancing governance over aquaculture, in seeking to transform it towards an environmentally, economically and socially sustainable industry. The paper shows that positive outcomes have been achieved after the policy measures have been implemented over the past two decades. However, potential challenges of ongoing environmental impacts, conflicts regarding multiple sea uses, concerns on seafood safety, lack of management of “black” farms, low market penetration of ecolabeled products and lack of participative management were identified. It argues for the need to encourage ICZM programs to solve sea use conflicts and minimize environmental impacts, reduce “black farms” to fill the management gap, enhance market shares of ecolabeled products and a transition to a more participative mode of governance.     

The Global Seafood Market Performance Index: A theoretical proposal and potential empirical applications

The objective of this paper is to create the Global Seafood Market Performance Index (GSMPI) in order to compare fisheries-related impacts of different countries across spatial and temporal scales. The article presents the first effort to investigate the trade-offs among marine ecosystems, seafood markets, poverty alleviation, food security and governance at worldwide level by creating the GSMPI. The GSMPI will provide relevant information on environmental, governance, socioeconomic, food security, corruption, seafood market, and corporate social responsibility issues for individual decision-makers and scientists, national governments, and stakeholders as well as international fishing and aquaculture industries.     

Antioxidant and antitumor potential of wild and IMT-Acultivated Osmundea pinnatifida

Osmundea pinnatifida is a red edible seaweed known as pepper dulse.O.pinnatifida was cultivated in the farm of ALGAplus(ílhavo,Portugal).This farm is integrated with a seabream and seabass commercial aquaculture and uses the nutrient-enriched water resultant from the fish production as its cultivation medium in the integrated multi-trophic aquaculture(IMTA)manner.Wild and IMTA-cultivated samples of O.pinnatifi da were screened for antioxidant and antitumor activities.The antioxidant capacity of solvent extracts from wild and IMTA cultivated samples was assessed in two methods(2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH)and oxygen radical absorbance capacity(ORAC)),and their total phenolic contents(TPC)were estimated.Antitumor activity was evaluated in three different tumor cell lines(HepG-2,MCF-7,and SH-SY5Y)through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide(MTT)assay.Among the solvents used for extraction,dichloromethane was the most eff ective to extract phenolic compounds and presented higher ORAC.A significant correlation was found between TPC and ORAC,which was also sustained by the principal components analysis(PCA).Dichloromethane extracts induced a cytostatic eff ect on MCF-7 cells and showed weak cytotoxicity to SH-SY5Y cells and weak impact on cell proliferation.Overall,there were no statistically signifi cant differences in the biological activities shown by the wild and IMTA-cultivated samples.Hence,O.pinnatifida can be obtained in an economical and environmentally sustainable way through IMTA,maintaining bioactive properties in a high potential for further nutraceutical purposes.     

Aligning tourist,industry and government expectations: A case study from the swim with whales industry in Tonga

Swimming with humpback whales in the Kingdom of Tonga is a growing industry that provides important revenue for a small Pacific Island economy. However the sustainability of this industry has been questioned due to its potential impact on the animals involved. The activity focuses on an ‘endangered’ subpopulation of humpback whales, with swimming occurring in the breeding area primarily with groups of animals containing young calves. This paper examines the relationship between the existing Tongan Government draft regulations and Tonga Whale Watching Operator Association guidelines that control the industry and visitor expectations about the management of the activity. There is significant support from visitors for strong, easy to understand and enforceable regulations governing the swim with whales industry. There is a clear correlation between current moves to strengthen Government regulations and the expectation from visitors that their activity is, and will be, conducted in a sustainable manner. The study recommends that to ensure compliance with regulations, appropriate management fees should be charged, visitors should be engaged in environmental education activities and further research should be conducted on the impacts of swimming with humpback whales.     

Another perspective on challenges in open ocean aquaculture development

Moving to open ocean locations will require the aquaculture industry to fundamentally change the way it develops installations due to increased environmental loads and longer distances from shore. With reference to the same technical issues faced by the oil producing offshore industry, technical and engineering challenges that are likely to face the aquaculture industry are identified with an emphasis on conditions off the east coast of Canada. Requirements are discussed with a view toward identifying areas where the aquaculture industry can borrow technology from the oil industry and areas where the Canadian aquaculture industry faces challenges unique to itself.     

Is there a relationship between fisheries and farming? Interdependence of fisheries,animal production and aquaculture

Fishmeal is a critically important feed ingredient for use in animal (e.g., poultry and pigs) and aquaculture production (e.g., salmon, trout and shrimp). There is great concern that increasing demand for fishmeal will place stress on the world's pelagic fisheries and may undermine the sustainability of aquaculture systems. Our research shows that after 1998 the fishmeal sector changed. The change has increased costs for animal and fish producers, which seems to have acted as a stimulus for innovation. The results have considerable implications for the management and health of pelagic fisheries.     

Socio-economic impacts of ocean acidification in the Mediterranean Sea

Ocean acidification appears as another environmental pressure associated with anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide. This paper aims to assess the likely magnitude of this phenomenon in the Mediterranean region. This involves translating expected changes in ocean chemistry into impacts, first on marine and coastal ecosystems and then, through effects on services provided by these to humans, into socio-economic costs. Economic market and non-market valuation techniques are needed for this purpose. Important sectors affected are tourism and recreation, red coral extraction, and fisheries (both capture and aquaculture production). In addition, the costs associated with the disruption of ecosystem regulating services, notably carbon sequestration and non-use values will be considered. Finally, indirect impacts on other economic sectors will have to be estimated. The paper discusses the framework and methods to accomplish all of this, and offers a preliminary, qualitative overall assessment.     

Precautionary management of deep-sea mining

Interest in deep-sea mining developed in the early 1970s, with a focus on manganese nodules in international waters. Mining may actually occur first, however, on rich polymetallic sulfide deposits associated with hydrothermal vents within exclusive economic zones. Even though mining for polymetallic sulfides may not take place for several years, precautionary performance standards, environmental regulations, and the establishment of Marine Protected Areas may help guide the marine mining industry toward a goal of minimizing environmental impacts. Once substantial investments in prospecting and exploring a potential mining site are made, implementation of environmental regulations may prove to be much more difficult.     

Improving market access for salmon through free trade agreements: The role of interests and institutional frameworks

This article compares the strategies of Chile and Norway toward free trade agreements (FTAs) and the market access results achieved for salmon, showing that Chile has been more successful than Norway. Hence, the article addresses whether Norway will be able to compete with Chile with regard to better market access for salmon through FTAs. The second part of the article analyses the trade interests and the institutional frameworks chosen to pursue FTAs, emphasizing how these two countries operate under different conditions for market access improvement, which in turn can make it difficult for Norway to take the market access lead from Chile.     

Jellyfish blooms perception in Mediterranean finfish aquaculture

In recent years, negative impacts of jellyfish blooms (JB) on marine human activities have been increasingly reported. Aquaculture has been affected by jellyfish outbreaks, mostly documented through repeated episodes of farmed salmon mortalities in Northern Europe; however, the valuation of JB consequences on the aquaculture sector still remains poorly quantified. This study aims to provide the first quantitative evaluation effects of JB on finfish aquaculture in the Mediterranean Sea and to investigate the general awareness of JB impacts among Mediterranean aquaculture professional workers. The aquaculture workers' perception about JB was assessed through a structured interview-based survey administered across 21 aquaculture facilities in central and western Mediterranean. The workers' awareness about JB impacts on aquaculture differed among countries. Italian and Spanish fish farmers were better informed about jellyfish proliferations and, together with Tunisian farmers, they all recognized the wide potential consequences of JB on sea bream and sea bass aquaculture. On the contrary, the majority of Maltese respondents considered JB as a non-significant threat to their activity, mostly based on off-shore tuna farming. This study for the first time shows that JB may negatively affect different Mediterranean aquaculture facilities from Tunisia (Sicily Channel) and Spain (Alboran Sea), by increasing farmed fish gill disorders and mortality, clogging net cages, or inflicting painful stings to field operators, with severe economic consequences. Available knowledge calls for the development of coordinated preventive plans, adaptation policies, and mitigation countermeasures across European countries in order to address the JB phenomenon and its impacts on coastal water activities.     

Market driven management of climate change impacts in the Spanish mussel sector

Mussel farming is the largest aquaculture activity in Spain both in volume and value, being a key pillar for the development of the coastal areas in Galicia (NW Spain), where this production is concentrated. The available scientific knowledge suggests that in the long term the primary productivity of the Galician estuaries will be reduced due to climate change. Consequently, adaptive management will be required to face this challenge. The impact of the likely production decrease will depend, among other factors, on the availability of substitutes, being their identification the main object of this research. So, it was analysed whether this markets are integrated or not through cointegration tests, finding that only the French and the Spanish markets are partially integrated. This implies that since very little substitutes are available for the Galician fresh mussels, decreases in production will not necessarily affect producer's income, as prices increases will compensate the (eventual) reduction in volume. In terms of policy, this study suggests that market intelligence may contribute to an adaptive, pragmatic and flexible framework to face climate change impacts, avoiding too anticipated or blind responses that may result in economic, environmental and social costs.