A giant crater on 90 Antiope?

Mutual event observations between the two components of 90 Antiope were carried out in 2007-2008. The pole position was refined to λ₀ = 199.5 ± 0.5° and β₀ = 39.8 ± 5° in J2000 ecliptic coordinates, leaving intact the physical solution for the components, assimilated to two perfect Roche ellipsoids, and derived after the 2005 mutual event season (Descamps, P., Marchis, F., Michalowski, T., Vachier, F., Colas, F., Berthier, J., Assafin, M., Dunckel, P.B., Polinska, M., Pych, W., Hestroffer, D., Miller, K., Vieira-Martins, R., Birlan, M., Teng-Chuen-Yu, J.-P., Peyrot, A., Payet, B., Dorseuil, J., Léonie, Y., Dijoux, T., 2007. Figure of the double Asteroid 90 Antiope from AO and lightcurves observations. Icarus 187, 482-499). Furthermore, a large-scale geological depression, located on one of the components, was introduced to better match the observed lightcurves. This vast geological feature of about 68 km in diameter, which could be postulated as a bowl-shaped impact crater, is indeed responsible of the photometric asymmetries seen on the “shoulders” of the lightcurves. The bulk density was then recomputed to 1.28 ± 0.04 g cm⁻³ to take into account this large-scale non-convexity. This giant crater could be the aftermath of a tremendous collision of a 100-km sized proto-Antiope with another Themis family member. This statement is supported by the fact that Antiope is sufficiently porous (∼50%) to survive such an impact without being wholly destroyed. This violent shock would have then imparted enough angular momentum for fissioning of proto-Antiope into two equisized bodies. We calculated that the impactor must have a diameter greater than ∼17 km, for an impact velocity ranging between 1 and 4 km/s. With such a projectile, this event has a substantial 50% probability to have occurred over the age of the Themis family.     

Figure of the double Asteroid 90 Antiope from adaptive optics and lightcurve observations

A long-term adaptive optics (AO) campaign of observing the double Asteroid (90) Antiope has been carried out in 2003-2005 using 8-10-m class telescopes, allowing prediction of the circumstances of mutual events occurring during the July 2005 opposition [Marchis, F., Descamps, P., Hestroffer, D., Berthier, J., de Pater, I., 2004. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 36, 1180]. This is the first opportunity to use complementary lightcurve and AO observations to extensively study the (90) Antiope system, an interesting visualized binary doublet system located in the main belt. The orbital parameters derived from the AO observations have served as input quantities for the derivation of a whole set of other physical parameters (namely shapes, surface scattering, bulk density, and internal properties) from analysis of collected lightcurves. To completely model the observed lightcurves, we employed Roche figures to construct an overall shape solution. The combination of these complementary observations has enabled us to derive a reliable physical and orbital solution for the system. Our model is consistent with a system of slightly non-spherical components, having a size ratio of 0.95 (with Ravg=42.9±0.5 km, separation=171±1 km), and exhibiting equilibrium figures for homogeneous rotating bodies. A comparison with grazing occultation event lightcurves suggests that the real shapes of the components do not depart from Roche equilibrium figures by more than 10%. The J2000 ecliptic coordinates of the pole of the system are λn=200°±2° and αn=38°±2°. The orbital period was refined to P=16.5051±0.0001 h, and the density is found to be slightly lower than previous determinations, with a value of 1.25±0.05 g/cm³, leading to a significant macro-porosity of 30%. Possible scenarios for the origin of the system are also discussed.     

New laboratory measurements of CH4 in Titan's conditions and a reanalysis of the DISR near-surface spectra at the Huygens landing site

Laboratory spectra of methane-nitrogen mixtures have been recorded in the near-infrared range (1.0-1.65 μm) in conditions similar to Titan's near surface, to facilitate the interpretation of the DISR/DLIS (DISR—Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer) spectra taken during the last phase of the descent of the Huygens Probe, when the surface was illuminated by a surface-science lamp. We used a 0.03 cm⁻¹ spectral resolution, adequate to resolve the lines at high pressure (p_N2∼1.5 bar). By comparing the laboratory spectra with synthetic calculations in the well-studied ν₂+2ν₃ band (7515-7620 cm⁻¹), we determine a methane absorption column density of 178±20 cm atm and a temperature of 118±10 K in our experiment. From this, we derive the methane absorption coefficients over 1.0-1.65 μm with a 0.03 cm⁻¹ sampling, allowing for the extrapolation of the results to any other methane column density under the relevant pressure and temperature conditions. We then revisit the calibration and analysis of the Titan “lamp-on” DLIS spectra. We infer a 5.1±0.8% methane-mixing ratio in the first 25 m of Titan's atmosphere. The CH₄ mixing ratio measured 90 s after landing from a distance of 45 cm is found to be 0.92±0.25 times this value, thus showing no post-landing outgassing of methane in excess of ∼20%. Finally, we determine the surface reflectivity as seen between 25 m and 45 cm and find that the 1500 nm absorption band is deeper in the post-landing spectrum as compared to pre-landing.     

A spectroscopic comparison of HED meteorites and V-type asteroids in the inner Main Belt

V-type asteroids in the inner Main Belt (a < 2.5 AU) and the HED meteorites are thought to be genetically related to one another as collisional fragments from the surface of the large basaltic Asteroid 4 Vesta. We investigate this relationship by comparing the near-infrared (0.7-2.5 μm) spectra of 39 V-type asteroids to laboratory spectra of HED meteorites. The central wavelengths and areas spanned by the 1 and 2 μm pyroxene-olivine absorption bands that are characteristic of planetary basalts are measured for both the asteroidal and meteoritic data. The band centers are shown to be well correlated, however the ratio of areas spanned by the 1 and 2 μm absorption bands are much larger for the asteroids than for the meteorites. We argue that this offset in band area ratio is consistent with our currently limited understanding of the effects of space weathering, however we cannot rule out the possibility that this offset is due to compositional differences. Several other possible causes of this offset are discussed.Amongst these inner Main Belt asteroids we do not find evidence for non-Vestoid mineralogies. Instead, these asteroids seem to represent a continuum of compositions, consistent with an origin from a single differentiated parent body. In addition, our analysis shows that V-type asteroids with low inclinations (i < 6°) tend to have band centers slightly shifted towards long wavelengths. This may imply that more than one collision on Vesta’s surface was responsible for producing the observed population of inner belt V-type asteroids. Finally, we offer several predictions that can be tested when the Dawn spacecraft enters into orbit around Vesta in the summer of 2011.     

A spectroscopic study of DD UMa: Ursa Major group member and candidate for BRITE

The Ursa Major group is a nearby stellar supercluster which, while not gravitationally bound, is defined by co-moving members. DD UMa is a δ Scuti star whose membership in the Ursa Major group is unclear.The objective of this study is to confirm the membership of DD UMa in the Ursa Major group, as well as perform a detailed spectral analysis of the star. Since DD UMa is a low-amplitude δ Scuti star, we performed a frequency analysis. We determined fundamental parameters, chemical abundances, and derive a mass and age for the star.For this study we observed DD UMa at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory with the high-resolution spectrograph HIDES, between the 27th of February and the 4th March, 2009. Additional observations were extracted from the ELODIE archive in order to expand our abundance analysis. Group membership of DD UMa was assessed by examining the velocity of the star in Galactic coordinates. Pulsational frequencies were determined by examining line profile variability in the HIDES spectra. Stellar fundamental parameters and chemical abundances were derived by fitting synthetic spectra to both the HIDES and ELODIE observations.DD UMa is found to be a member of the extended stream of the Ursa Major group, based on the space motion of the star. This is supported by the chemical abundances of the star being consistent with those of Ursa Major group members. The star is found to be chemically solar, with T_eff = 7450 ± 150 K and logg = 3.98 ± 0.2. We found pulsational frequencies of 9.4 and 15.0 c/d. While these frequencies are insufficient to perform an asteroseismic study, DD UMa is a good bright star candidate for future study by the BRITE-constellation.     

Regolith depth growth on an icy body orbiting Saturn and evolution of bidirectional reflectance due to surface composition changes

Using a Markov chain model, we consider the regolith growth on a small body in orbit around Saturn, subject to meteoritic bombardment, and assuming all impact ejecta are re-collected. We calculate the growth of regolith and the fractional pollution, assuming an initial pure ice body and amorphous carbon as a pollutant. We extend the meteorite flux of Cuzzi and Estrada (Cuzzi, J., Estrada, P. [1998]. Icarus 132, 1-35) to larger sizes to consider the effect of disruption of the moonlet on other moonlets in the ensemble. This is a relatively small effect, completely negligible for moonlets of 1 m radius. For the given impact model, fractional pollution reaches 22% for 1 m bodies, but only 3% for 10 m bodies, 1.7% for 20 m bodies, and 1% for 30 m bodies after 4 byr. By considering an ensemble of moonlets, which have identical cross-sections for releasing and capturing ejecta, this analysis can be extended to a model of particles in Saturn’s rings, where the calculated spectra can be compared to observed ring spectra. The measured spectral reflectance of Saturn’s rings from Cassini observations therefore constrains the size and age of the ring particles. The comparison between 1 m, 10 m, 20 m, and 30 m particles confirms that for larger ring mass, the current rings would be less polluted; for the largest particles, we expect negligible changes in the UV spectrum after 4 byr of meteoritic bombardment. We consider two end members for mixing of the meteoritic material: areal and intimate. Given the uncertainties in the actual mixing of the meteoritic infall and in its composition (as a worst case, we assume the meteoritic material is 100% amorphous carbon, intimately mixed) initially pure ice 30 m ring particles would darken after 4 byr of exposure by 15%.     

Revised vertical cloud structure of Uranus from UKIRT/UIST observations and changes seen during Uranus’ Northern Spring Equinox from 2006 to 2008: Application of new methane absorption data and comparison with Neptune

Long-slit spectroscopy observations of Uranus by the United Kingdom InfraRed Telescope UIST instrument in 2006, 2007 and 2008 have been used to monitor the change in Uranus’ vertical and latitudinal cloud structure through the planet’s Northern Spring Equinox in December 2007.These spectra were analysed and presented by Irwin et al. (Irwin, P.G.J., Teanby, N.A., Davis, G.R. [2009]. Icarus 203, 287-302), but since publication, a new set of methane absorption data has become available (Karkoschka, E., Tomasko, M. [2010]. Methane absorption coefficients for the jovian planets from laboratory, Huygens, and HST data. Icarus 205, 674-694.), which appears to be more reliable at the cold temperatures and high pressures of Uranus’ deep atmosphere. We have fitted k-coefficients to these new methane absorption data and we find that although the latitudinal variation and inter-annual changes reported by Irwin et al. (2009) stand, the new k-data place the main cloud deck at lower pressures (2-3 bars) than derived previously in the H-band of ∼3-4 bars and ∼3 bars compared with ∼6 bars in the J-band. Indeed, we find that using the new k-data it is possible to reproduce satisfactorily the entire observed centre-of-disc Uranus spectrum from 1 to 1.75 μm with a single cloud at 2-3 bars provided that we make the particles more back-scattering at wavelengths less than 1.2 μm by, for example, increasing the assumed single-scattering albedo from 0.75 (assumed in the J and H-bands) to near 1.0. In addition, we find that using a deep methane mole fraction of 4% in combination with the associated warm ‘F’ temperature profile of Lindal et al. (Lindal, G.F., Lyons, J.R., Sweetnam, D.N., Eshleman, V.R., Hinson, D.P. [1987]. J. Geophys. Res. 92, 14987-15001), the retrieved cloud deck using the new (Karkoschka and Tomasko, 2010) methane absorption data moves to between 1 and 2 bars.The same methane absorption data and retrieval algorithm were applied to observations of Neptune made during the same programme and we find that we can again fit the entire 1-1.75 μm centre-of-disc spectrum with a single cloud model, providing that we make the stratospheric haze particles (of much greater opacity than for Uranus) conservatively scattering (i.e. ω = 1) and we also make the deeper cloud particles, again at around the 2 bar level more reflective for wavelengths less than 1.2 μm. Hence, apart from the increased opacity of stratospheric hazes in Neptune’s atmosphere, the deeper cloud structure and cloud composition of Uranus and Neptune would appear to be very similar.     

Component-resolved near-infrared spectra of the (22) Kalliope system

We observed (22) Kalliope and its companion Linus with the integral-field spectrograph OSIRIS, which is coupled to the adaptive optics system at the W.M. Keck 2 telescope on March 25, 2008. We present, for the first time, component-resolved spectra acquired simultaneously in each of the Zbb (1-1.18 μm), Jbb (1.18-1.42 μm), Hbb (1.47-1.80 μm), and Kbb (1.97-2.38 μm) bands. The spectra of the two bodies are remarkably similar and imply that both bodies were formed at the same time from the same material; such as via incomplete re-accretion after a major impact on the precursor body.     

Thermal alteration of nontronite and montmorillonite: Implications for the martian surface

To test the effects of meteorite impacts on martian phyllosilicate deposits, we heated two smectites (nontronite and montmorillonite) to temperatures ranging from 350 °C to 1150 °C for durations of 4-24 h in two different atmospheres, under air and a steady flow of CO₂. Samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and near-infrared (NIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) reflectance spectroscopy. Interlayer water was lost after heating to temperatures of ∼400 °C. Between 400 °C and 700 °C, nontronite converted to an intermediary phase which conserved the XRD pattern of untreated nontronite with the exception of the 0 0 1 peak. Nanocrystalline high-temperature phases formed for both smectites at temperatures between 700 °C and 1000 °C. Finally, after being heated to temperatures above ∼1100 °C, the samples melted and recrystallized into secondary phases. Secondary high-temperature phases included sillimanite and cristobalite for both smectites plus hematite for nontronite. NIR and MIR reflectance spectra significantly evolved with increasing temperature. NIR spectra of smectites showed that 1.4 and 1.9 μm bands decrease in intensity and disappear above 700 °C. Similarly, the 2.2-2.3 μm metal-OH band showed a decrease in intensity as well as an overall shift towards lower wavelengths (for nontronite) due to the thermal resistance of the Al-OH bond compared to the Fe-OH bond. NIR spectra of montmorillonite showed a gradual increase in band depth up to temperatures between 500 °C and 600 °C, then decreased with increasing temperature. In the MIR spectra of samples heated to temperatures above ∼1100 °C, newly formed bands confirmed the secondary phases identified by XRD. Similarities between the NIR spectra of our heated samples and the phyllosilicates in some martian craters imply that these phyllosilicates were altered by the impact-generated heat and thus were not formed post-impact. In addition, NIR reflectance spectra provide a proxy for shock temperatures of smectites up to 700 °C while MIR is optimum for identification of high-temperature phases of smectites above 700 °C.     

Spectral reflectance properties of carbonaceous chondrites: 2. CM chondrites

We have examined the spectral reflectance properties and available modal mineralogies of 39 CM carbonaceous chondrites to determine their range of spectral variability and to diagnose their spectral features. We have also reviewed the published literature on CM mineralogy and subclassification, surveyed the published spectral literature and added new measurements of CM chondrites and relevant end members and mineral mixtures, and measured 11 parameters and searched pair-wise for correlations between all quantities. CM spectra are characterized by overall slopes that can range from modestly blue-sloped to red-sloped, with brighter spectra being generally more red-sloped. Spectral slopes, as measured by the 2.4:0.56 μm and 2.4 μm:visible region peak reflectance ratios, range from 0.90 to 2.32, and 0.81 to 2.24, respectively, with values <1 indicating blue-sloped spectra. Matrix-enriched CM spectra can be even more blue-sloped than bulk samples, with ratios as low as 0.85. There is no apparent correlation between spectral slope and grain size for CM chondrite spectra - both fine-grained powders and chips can exhibit blue-sloped spectra. Maximum reflectance across the 0.3-2.5 μm interval ranges from 2.9% to 20.0%, and from 2.8% to 14.0% at 0.56 μm. Matrix-enriched CM spectra can be darker than bulk samples, with maximum reflectance as low as 2.1%. CM spectra exhibit nearly ubiquitous absorption bands near 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 μm, with depths up to 12%, and, less commonly, absorption bands in other wavelength regions (e.g., 0.4-0.5, 0.65, 2.2 μm). The depths of the 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 μm absorption features vary largely in tandem, suggesting a single cause, specifically serpentine-group phyllosilicates. The generally high Fe content, high phyllosilicate abundance relative to mafic silicates, and dual Fe valence state in CM phyllosilicates, all suggest that the phyllosilicates will exhibit strong absorption bands in the 0.7 μm region (due to Fe³⁺-Fe²⁺ charge transfers), and the 0.9-1.2 μm region (due to Fe²⁺ crystal field transitions), and generally dominate over mafic silicates. CM petrologic subtypes exhibit a positive correlation between degree of aqueous alteration and depth of the 0.7 μm absorption band. This is consistent with the decrease in fine-grained opaques that accompanies aqueous alteration. There is no consistent relationship between degree of aqueous alteration and evidence for a 0.65 μm region saponite-group phyllosilicate absorption band. Spectra of different subsamples of a single CM can show large variations in absolute reflectance and overall slope. This is probably due to petrologic variations that likely exist within a single CM chondrite, as duplicate spectra for a single subsample show much less spectral variability. When the full suite of available CM spectra is considered, few clear spectral-compositional trends emerge. This indicates that multiple compositional and physical factors affect absolute reflectance, absorption band depths, and absorption band wavelength positions. Asteroids with reflectance spectra that exhibit absorption features consistent with CM spectra (i.e., absorption bands near 0.7 and 0.9 μm) include members from multiple taxonomic groups. This suggests that on CM parent bodies, aqueous alteration resulted in the consistent production of serpentine-group phyllosilicates, however resulting absolute reflectances and spectral shapes seen in CM reflectance spectra are highly variable, accounting for the presence of phyllosilicate features in reflectance spectra of asteroids across diverse taxonomic groups.     

A coordinated spectral, mineralogical, and compositional study of ordinary chondrites

Mineral compositions and abundances derived from visible/near-infrared (VIS/NIR or VNIR) spectra are used to classify asteroids, identify meteorite parent bodies, and understand the structure of the asteroid belt. Using a suite of 48 equilibrated (types 4-6) ordinary (H, L, and LL) chondrites containing orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and olivine, new relationships between spectra and mineralogy have been established. Contrary to previous suggestions, no meaningful correlation is observed between band parameters and cpx/(opx + cpx) ratios. We derive new calibrations for determining mineral abundances (ol/(ol + px)) and mafic silicate compositions (Fa in olivine, Fs in pyroxene) from VIS/NIR spectra. These calibrations confirm that band area ratio (BAR) is controlled by mineral abundances, while Band I center is controlled by mafic silicate compositions. Spectrally-derived mineralogical parameters correctly classify H, L and LL chondrites in ∼80% of cases, suggesting that these are robust relationships that can be applied to S(IV) asteroids with ordinary chondrites mineralogies. Comparison of asteroids and meteorites using these new mineralogical parameters has the advantage that H, L and LL chemical groups were originally defined on the basis of mafic silicate compositions.     

The 506 nm absorption feature in pyroxene spectra: Nature and implications for spectroscopy-based studies of pyroxene-bearing targets

High-resolution (0.34 nm) reflectance spectra of a suite of terrestrial ortho- and clinopyroxenes were characterized in the 506-nm region. This region exhibits absorption bands attributed to spin-forbidden transitions in Fe²⁺ located in the M2, and possibly M1, crystallographic site(s). The most intense absorption bands (up to 3.8% deep in <45 μm fractions) are present in low Ca-content orthopyroxene spectra. This region exhibits two (spectral Group I) or more (spectral Group II) absorption bands in the 500-515 nm interval. Group I spectra are associated with the lowest Ca-content samples. For orthopyroxenes, the number of constituent absorption bands and band depths vary as a function of Ca content; increasing Ca content results the appearance of more than two absorption bands and a general reduction in band depths, offsetting an expected increase in band depth with increasing Fe²⁺ content; band depths may also be reduced due to the long wavelength wing of ultraviolet region Fe-O charge transfer absorptions. Band depths and shapes in this region are also a function of grain size, with the strongest bands appearing for larger grain sizes - in the 90-250 μm range. The number and position of constituent absorption bands can be used to constrain factors such as cooling rates, as expressed in the formation of Guinier-Preston zones versus coarser-grained augite exsolution lamellae. Band depths in the spectra of fine-grained (<45 μm) clinopyroxenes do not exceed 1% and are generally lowest for spectral type A clinopyroxenes, where most of the Fe²⁺ is present in the M1 crystallographic site. The appearance of the 506 nm band in the spectra of pyroxene-bearing asteroids can be used to constrain pyroxene composition and structure. The results of this study suggest that detailed analysis of absorption features in the 506 nm region is a powerful tool for determining the composition and structure of pyroxenes. The spectral resolution of the VIR-MS spectrometer aboard the Dawn spacecraft - which will examine Asteroid 4 Vesta, a body possessing surficial pyroxenes - will be sufficient to provide some constraints on pyroxene composition.     

Eclipse reappearances of Io: Time-resolved spectroscopy (1.9-4.2 μm)

We obtained time-resolved, near-infrared spectra of Io during the 60-90 min following its reappearance from eclipse by Jupiter on five occasions in 2004. The purpose was to search for spectral changes, particularly in the well-known SO₂ frost absorption bands, that would indicate surface-atmosphere exchange of gaseous SO₂ induced by temperature changes during eclipse. These observations were a follow-on to eclipse spectroscopy observations in which Bellucci et al. [Bellucci et al., 2004. Icarus 172, 141-148] reported significant changes in the strengths of two strong SO₂ bands in data acquired with the VIMS instrument aboard the Cassini spacecraft. One of the bands (4.07 μm [ν₁ + ν₃]) observed by Bellucci et al. is visible from ground-based observatories and is included in our data. We detected no changes in Io’s spectrum at any of the five observed events during the approximately 60-90 min during which spectra were obtained following Io’s emergence from Jupiter’s shadow. The areas of the three strongest SO₂ bands in the region 3.5-4.15 μm were measured for each spectrum; the variation of the band areas with time does not exceed that which can be explained by the Io’s few degrees of axial rotation during the intervals of observation, and in no case does the change in band strength approach that seen in the Cassini VIMS data. Our data are of sufficient quality and resolution to show the weak 2.198 μm (4549.6 cm⁻¹) 4ν₁ band of SO₂ frost on Io for what we believe is the first time. At one of the events (June 22, 2004), we began the acquisition of spectra ∼6 min before Io reappeared from Jupiter’s shadow, during which time it was detected through its own thermal emission. No SO₂ bands were superimposed on the purely thermal spectrum on this occasion, suggesting that the upper limit to condensed SO₂ in the vertical column above Io’s surface was ∼4 × 10⁻⁵ g cm⁻².     

Assessing the limits of the Modified Gaussian Model for remote spectroscopic studies of pyroxenes on Mars

We investigate the ability to refine pyroxene composition and modal abundance from laboratory and remotely acquired spectra. Laboratory data including the martian meteorites, Shergotty, Zagami, MIL03346, and ALH84001 as well as additional pyroxene-rich spectra obtained from the OMEGA (Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l'Eau, les Glaces, et l'Activité) spectrometer for Mars are characterized using the Modified Gaussian Model (MGM), a spectral deconvolution method developed by Sunshine et al. [Sunshine, J.M., Pieters, C.M., Pratt, S., 1990. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 6955-6966]. We develop two sensitivity tests to assess the extent to which the MGM can consistently predict (1) pyroxene composition and (2) modal abundance for a compositionally diverse suite of pyroxene spectra. Results of the sensitivity tests indicate that the MGM can be appropriately applied to remote spectroscopic measurements of extraterrestrial surfaces and can estimate pyroxene composition and relative abundance within a derived uncertainty. Deconvolved band positions for laboratory spectra of the meteorites Shergotty and Zagami are determined within ±17 nm while remotely acquired OMEGA spectra are defined within ±50 nm. These results suggest that absolute compositions can be uniquely derived from laboratory pyroxene-rich spectra and non-uniquely derived from the remote measurements of OMEGA at this time. While relative pyroxene chemistries are not assessed from OMEGA measurements at this time, relative pyroxene abundances are estimated using a normalized band strength ratio between the low-calcium (LCP) and high-calcium (HCP) endmember components and are constrained to ±10%. The fraction of LCP in a two-pyroxene mixture is the derived value from the normalized band strength ratio, LCP/(LCP + HCP). This calculation for relative abundance is robust in the presence of up to 10-15% olivine. Deconvolution results from the OMEGA spectra indicate that the ancient terrain in the Syrtis Major region is uniquely enriched in LCP (59±10% LCP) relative to HCP while the volcanics of Syrtis Major are uniquely enriched in HCP (39±10% LCP).     

A Research on the Characteristics of Light Variation of Blazar 3C 273 in 2-10 keV

From the original observed data of RXTE (Rossi X-ray timing explorer), the data of 3C 273 in the X-ray band of 2-10 keV from February 2, 1996 (MJD 50115) to August 27, 2007 (MJD 54339) are analyzed. The photon spectral indexes and corresponding fluxes of the observational data from 1010 observations are obtained in total. The average time of each observation is 1666.76 seconds. By analyzing the spectral variation and behavior of the light variation of 3C 273 in the hard X-ray band of 2-10 keV during observational periods, it is found that there was a significant anti-correlation between the photon spectral index Γ and flux lgF_{2∼10 keV} in February 2000, March and April 2003, February, March and July 2004, as well as 2006 and 2007. During the observational periods in 1999 and from 2000 to 2007, there was also a significant anti-correlation between the monthly average behaviors of Γ and lgF_{2∼10 keV}. From the quantitative analysis of the behavior of light variation in the entire observational period, several relatively large light variations are found. The evidence of the existence of the Fe emission line with average width of 93.85±21.49 eV is also found by fitting a part of the spectra. Through analyzing the intensity of the light variation and features of Fe emission line, it is found that 3C 273 has some characteristics of blazars and Seyfert galaxies simultaneously.     

Geophysical consequences of planetary-scale impacts into a Mars-like planet

All planetary bodies with old surfaces exhibit planetary-scale impact craters: vast scars caused by the large impacts at the end of Solar System accretion or the late heavy bombardment. Here we investigate the geophysical consequences of planetary-scale impacts into a Mars-like planet, by simulating the events using a smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) model. Our simulations probe impact energies over two orders of magnitude (2 × 10²⁷-6 × 10²⁹ J), impact velocities from the planet’s escape velocity to twice Mars’ orbital velocity (6-50 km/s), and impact angles from head-on to highly oblique (0-75°). The simulation results confirm that for planetary-scale impacts, surface curvature, radial gravity, the large relative size of the impactor to the planet, and the greater penetration of the impactor, contribute to significant differences in the geophysical expression compared to small craters, which can effectively be treated as acting in a half-space. The results show that the excavated crustal cavity size and the total melt production scale similarly for both small and planetary-scale impacts as a function of impact energy. However, in planetary-scale impacts a significant fraction of the melt is sequestered at depth and thus does not contribute to resetting the planetary surface; complete surface resetting is likely only in the most energetic (6 × 10²⁹ J), slow, and head-on impacts simulated. A crater rim is not present for planetary-scale impacts with energies >10²⁹ J and angles ?45°, but rather the ejecta is more uniformly distributed over the planetary surface. Antipodal crustal removal and melting is present for energetic (>10²⁹ J), fast (>6 km/s), and low angle (?45°) impacts. The most massive impactors (with both high impact energy and low velocity) contribute sufficient angular momentum to increase the rotation period of the Mars-sized target to about a day. Impact velocities of >20 km/s result in net mass erosion from the target, for all simulated energies and angles. The hypothesized impact origin of planetary structures may be tested by the presence and distribution of the geochemically-distinct impactor material.     

Evidence for Mg-rich carbonates on Mars from a 3.9 μm absorption feature

The origin and nature of the early atmosphere of Mars is still debated. The discovery of sulfate deposits on the surface, coupled with the evidence that there are not large abundances of carbonates detectable on Mars in the optically accessible part of the regolith, leaves open different paleoclimatic evolutionary pathways. Even if carbonates are responsible for the feature observed by TES and Mini-TES at 6.76 μm, alternative hypotheses suggest that it could be due to the presence of Hydrated Iron Sulfates (HIS). Carbonates can be discerned from HIS by investigating the spectral region in which a strong overtone carbonate band is present. The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on board the Mars Express spacecraft has acquired several thousand martian spectra in the range 1.2-45 μm since January 2004, most of which show a weak absorption feature between 3.8 and 4 μm. A similar feature was observed previously from the Earth, but its origin could not be straightforwardly ascribed to surface materials, and specifically to carbonates. Here we show the surficial nature of this band that can be ascribed to carbonate mixed with the martian soil materials. The materials that best reproduce the detected feature are Mg-rich carbonates (huntite [CaMg₃(CO₃)₄] and/or magnesite [MgCO₃]). The presence of carbonates is demonstrated in both bright and dark martian regions. An evaluation of the likeliest abundance gives an upper limit of ∼10 wt%. The widespread distribution of carbonates supports scenarios that suggest carbonate formation occurred not by precipitation in a water-rich environment but by weathering processes.     

Limits on the size and orbit distribution of main belt comets

The first of a new class of objects now known as main belt comets (MBCs) or “activated asteroids” was identified in 1996. The seven known members of this class have orbital characteristics of main belt asteroids yet exhibit dust ejection like comets. In order to constrain their physical and orbital properties we searched the Thousand Asteroid Light Curve Survey (TALCS; Masiero, J.R., Jedicke, R., Durech, J., Gwyn, S., Denneau, L., Larsen, J. [2009]. Icarus 204, 145-171) for additional candidates using two diagnostics: tail and coma detection. This was the most sensitive MBC survey effort to date, extending the search from MBCs with H ∼ 18 (D ∼ 1 km) to MBCs as small as H ∼ 21 (D ∼ 150 m).We fit each of the 924 objects detected by TALCS to a PSF model incorporating both a coma and nuclear component to measure the fractional contribution of the coma to the total surface brightness. We determined the significance of the coma detection using the same algorithm on a sample of null detections of comparable magnitude and rate of motion. We did not identify any MBC candidates with this technique to a sensitivity limit on the order of cometary mass loss rate of about 0.1 kg/s.Our tail detection algorithm relied on identifying statistically significant flux in a segmented annulus around the candidate object. We show that the technique can detect tail activity throughout the asteroid belt to the level of the currently known MBCs. Although we did not identify any MBC candidates with this technique, we find a statistically significant detection of faint activity in the entire ensemble of TALCS asteroids. This suggests that many main belt asteroids are active at very low levels.Our null detection of MBCs allows us to set 90% upper confidence limits on the number distribution of MBCs as a function of absolute magnitude, semi-major axis, eccentricity, and inclination. There are ?400,000 MBCs in the main belt brighter than H_V = 21 (∼150-m in diameter) and the MBC:MBA ratio is ?1:400.We further comment on the ability of observations to meaningfully constrain the snow line’s location. Under some reasonable and simple assumptions we claim 85% confidence that the contemporary snow line lies beyond 2.5 AU.     

The large crater on the small Asteroid (2867) Steins

The maximum size of impact craters on finite bodies marks the largest impact that can occur short of impact induced disruption of the body. Recently attention has started to focus on large craters on small bodies such as asteroids and rocky and icy satellites. Here the large crater on the recently imaged Asteroid (2867) Steins (with crater diameter to mean asteroid radius ratio of 0.79) is shown to follow a limit set by other similar sized bodies with moderate macroporosity (i.e. fractured asteroids). Thus whilst large, the crater size is not novel, nor does it require Steins to possess an extremely large porosity. In one of the components of the binary Asteroid (90) Antiope there is the recently reported presence of an extremely large depression, possibly a crater, with depression diameter to mean asteroid radius ratio of ∼(1.4–1.62). This is consistent with the maximum size of a crater expected from previous observations of very porous rocky bodies (i.e. rubble-pile asteroids). Finally, a relationship between crater diameter (normalised to body radius) is proposed as a function of body porosity which suggests that the doubling of porosity between fractured asteroids and rubble-pile asteroids, nearly doubles the size (D/R value) of the largest crater sustainable on a rocky body.     

Spectroscopic survey of X-type asteroids

We present reflected light spectral observations from 0.4 to 2.5 μm of 24 asteroids chosen from the population of asteroids initially classified as Tholen X-type objects (Tholen, 1984). The X complex in the Tholen taxonomy comprises the E, M and P classes which have very different inferred mineralogies but which are spectrally similar to each other, with featureless spectra in visible wavelengths.The data were obtained during several observing runs in the 2004-2007 years at the NTT, TNG and IRTF telescopes. Sixteen asteroids were observed in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range, seven objects in the visible wavelength range only, and one object in the near-infrared wavelength range only. We find a large variety of near-infrared spectral behaviors within the X class, and we identify weak absorption bands in spectra of 11 asteroids. Our spectra, together with albedos published by Tedesco et al. (2002), can be used to suggest new Tholen classifications for these objects. We describe 1 A-type (1122), 1 D-type (1328), 1 E-type (possibly, 3447 Burckhalter), 10 M-types (77, 92, 184, 337, 417, 741, 758, 1124, 1146 and 1355), 5 P-types (275, 463, 522, 909, 1902), and 6 C-types (50, 220, 223, 283, 517, and 536). In order to constrain the possible composition of these asteroids, we perform a least-squares search through the RELAB spectral database. Many of the best fits are consistent with meteorite analogue materials suggested in the published literature. In fact, we find that seven of the new M-types can be fit with metallic iron (or pallasite) materials, and that the low albedo C/P-type asteroids are best fitted with CM meteorites, some of which have been subjected to heating episodes or laser irradiation. Our method of searching for meteorite analogues emphasizes the spectral characteristics of brightness and shape, and de-emphasizes minor absorption bands. Indeed, faint absorption features like the 0.9 μm band seen on four newly classified M-type asteroids are not reproduced by the iron meteorites. In these cases, we have searched for geographical mixture models that can fit the asteroid spectrum, minor bands, and albedo. We find that a few percent (less than 3%) of orthopyroxene added to iron or pallasite meteorite, results in good spectral matches, reproducing the weak spectral feature around 0.9 μm seen on 92 Undina, 417 Suevia, and 1124 Stroobantia. For 337 Devosa, a mixture model that better reproduces its spectral behavior and the 0.9 μm feature is made with Esquel pallasite enriched with goethite (2%).Finally, we consider the sample of the X-type asteroids we have when we combine the present observations with previously published observations for a total of 72 bodies. This sample includes M and E-type asteroid data presented in [Fornasier et al., 2008] and [Fornasier et al., 2010]. We find that the mean visible spectral slopes for the different E, M and P Tholen classes are very similar, as expected. An analysis of the X-type asteroid distribution in the main belt is also reported, following both the Tholen and the Bus-DeMeo taxonomies (DeMeo et al., 2009).