Directed blasts and blast-generated pyroclastic density currents: a comparison of the Bezymianny 1956, Mount St Helens 1980, and Soufrière Hills,Montserrat 1997 eruptions and deposits

We compare eruptive dynamics, effects and deposits of the Bezymianny 1956 (BZ), Mount St Helens 1980 (MSH), and Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat 1997 (SHV) eruptions, the key events of which included powerful directed blasts. Each blast subsequently generated a high-energy stratified pyroclastic density current (PDC) with a high speed at onset. The blasts were triggered by rapid unloading of an extruding or intruding shallow magma body (lava dome and/or cryptodome) of andesitic or dacitic composition. The unloading was caused by sector failures of the volcanic edifices, with respective volumes for BZ, MSH, and SHV c. 0.5, 2.5, and 0.05 km³. The blasts devastated approximately elliptical areas, axial directions of which coincided with the directions of sector failures. We separate the transient directed blast phenomenon into three main parts, the burst phase, the collapse phase, and the PDC phase. In the burst phase the pressurized mixture is driven by initial kinetic energy and expands rapidly into the atmosphere, with much of the expansion having an initially lateral component. The erupted material fails to mix with sufficient air to form a buoyant column, but in the collapse phase, falls beyond the source as an inclined fountain, and thereafter generates a PDC moving parallel to the ground surface. It is possible for the burst phase to comprise an overpressured jet, which requires injection of momentum from an orifice; however some exploding sources may have different geometry and a jet is not necessarily formed. A major unresolved question is whether the preponderance of strong damage observed in the volcanic blasts should be attributed to shock waves within an overpressured jet, or alternatively to dynamic pressures and shocks within the energetic collapse and PDC phases. Internal shock structures related to unsteady flow and compressibility effects can occur in each phase. We withhold judgment about published shock models as a primary explanation for the damage sustained at MSH until modern 3D numerical modeling is accomplished, but argue that much of the damage observed in directed blasts can be reasonably interpreted to have been caused by high dynamic pressures and clast impact loading by an inclined collapsing fountain and stratified PDC. This view is reinforced by recent modeling cited for SHV. In distal and peripheral regions, solids concentration, maximum particle size, current speed, and dynamic pressure are diminished, resulting in lesser damage and enhanced influence by local topography on the PDC. Despite the different scales of the blasts (devastated areas were respectively 500, 600, and >10 km² for BZ, MSH, and SHV), and some complexity involving retrogressive slide blocks and clusters of explosions, their pyroclastic deposits demonstrate strong similarity. Juvenile material composes >50% of the deposits, implying for the blasts a dominantly magmatic mechanism although hydrothermal explosions also occurred. The character of the magma fragmented by explosions (highly viscous, phenocryst-rich, variable microlite content) determined the bimodal distributions of juvenile clast density and vesicularity. Thickness of the deposits fluctuates in proximal areas but in general decreases with distance from the crater, and laterally from the axial region. The proximal stratigraphy of the blast deposits comprises four layers named A, B, C, D from bottom to top. Layer A is represented by very poorly sorted debris with admixtures of vegetation and soil, with a strongly erosive ground contact; its appearance varies at different sites due to different ground conditions at the time of the blasts. The layer reflects intense turbulent boundary shear between the basal part of the energetic head of the PDC and the substrate. Layer B exhibits relatively well-sorted fines-depleted debris with some charred plant fragments; its deposition occurred by rapid suspension sedimentation in rapidly waning, high-concentration conditions. Layer C is mainly a poorly sorted massive layer enriched by fines with its uppermost part laminated, created by rapid sedimentation under moderate-concentration, weakly tractive conditions, with the uppermost laminated part reflecting a dilute depositional regime with grain-by-grain traction deposition. By analogy to laboratory experiments, mixing at the flow head of the PDC created a turbulent dilute wake above the body of a gravity current, with layer B deposited by the flow body and layer C by the wake. The uppermost layer D of fines and accretionary lapilli is an ash fallout deposit of the finest particles from the high-rising buoyant thermal plume derived from the sediment-depleted pyroclastic density current. The strong similarity among these eruptions and their deposits suggests that these cases represent similar source, transport and depositional phenomena.     

Large debris avalanches and associated eruptions in the Holocene eruptive history of Shiveluch Volcano, Kamchatka, Russia

 Shiveluch Volcano, located in the Central Kamchatka Depression, has experienced multiple flank failures during its lifetime, most recently in 1964. The overlapping deposits of at least 13 large Holocene debris avalanches cover an area of approximately 200 km² of the southern sector of the volcano. Deposits of two debris avalanches associated with flank extrusive domes are, in addition, located on its western slope. The maximum travel distance of individual Holocene avalanches exceeds 20 km, and their volumes reach ∼3 km³. The deposits of most avalanches typically have a hummocky surface, are poorly sorted and graded, and contain angular heterogeneous rock fragments of various sizes surrounded by coarse to fine matrix. The deposits differ in color, indicating different sources on the edifice. Tephrochronological and radiocarbon dating of the avalanches shows that the first large Holocene avalanches were emplaced approximately 4530–4350 BC. From ∼2490 BC at least 13 avalanches occurred after intervals of 30–900 years. Six large avalanches were emplaced between 120 and 970 AD, with recurrence intervals of 30–340 years. All the debris avalanches were followed by eruptions that produced various types of pyroclastic deposits. Features of some surge deposits suggest that they might have originated as a result of directed blasts triggered by rockslides. Most avalanche deposits are composed of fresh andesitic rocks of extrusive domes, so the avalanches might have resulted from the high magma supply rate and the repetitive formation of the domes. No trace of the 1854 summit failure mentioned in historical records has been found beyond 8 km from the crater; perhaps witnesses exaggerated or misinterpreted the events. Received: 18 August 1997 / Accepted: 19 December 1997     

Transport and deposition of pyroclastic material from the ∼1000 A.D. caldera-forming eruption of Volcán Ceboruco, Nayarit, Mexico

The complex eruption sequence from the ∼1000 A.D. caldera-forming eruption of Volcán Ceboruco, known as the Jala Pumice, offers an exceptional opportunity to examine how pyroclastic material is transported and deposited from pyroclastic density currents over variable topography. Three main pyroclastic surge deposits (S1, S2, and S3) and two pyroclastic flow deposits (Marquesado and North-Flank PFDs) were emplaced during this eruption. Pyroclastic surge deposits are massive, planar, or cross-bedded, poor-to-well sorted, and display fluctuations in thickness, median diameter, sorting, and lithology as a function of distance, topography, and flow dynamics. Marquesado pyroclastic flow deposits reveal lateral variations from massive, poorly sorted deposits located within 5 km of Ceboruco to planar bedded, moderately well sorted deposits located >15 km away over the nearly horizontal topography to the south of Ceboruco. North-Flank pyroclastic flow deposits also reveal lateral variations from massive, poorly sorted deposits located within 4 km of Ceboruco to planar bedded, moderately well sorted deposits located 8 km away atop an escarpment that steeply rises 230 m from the northern valley floor. Field observations, granulometric analyses, component analyses, and crystal sedimentation calculations along flow-parallel sampling transects all suggest that both surges and flows were density stratified currents, where deposition occurred from a basal region of higher particle concentration that was supplied from an overlying dilute layer that transports particles in suspension. This supports the idea of a transition between “flow” and “surge” end members with variations in particle concentration. Topography greatly affects the transport and depositional capacity of the pyroclastic density currents as a result of “blocking”, either by topographic obstacles or by abrupt breaks at the base of volcano slopes, whereas the origin of Jala Pumice surge deposits (phreatomagmatic versus magmatic) appears to have little impact on their flow dynamics. Editorial responsibility: A.W. Woods This revised version was published in February 2005 with corrections to the title. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Recent eruptions of Mount Adams, Washington Cascades, USA

 The postglacial eruption rate for the Mount Adams volcanic field is ∼0.1 km³/k.y., four to seven times smaller than the average rate for the past 520 k.y. Ten vents have been active since the last main deglaciation ∼15 ka. Seven high flank vents (at 2100–2600 m) and the central summit vent of the 3742-m stratocone produced varied andesites, and two peripheral vents (at 2100 and 1200 m) produced mildly alkalic basalt. Eruptive ages of most of these units are bracketed with respect to regional tephra layers from Mount Mazama and Mount St. Helens. The basaltic lavas and scoria cones north and south of Mount Adams and a 13-km-long andesitic lava flow on its east flank are of early postglacial age. The three most extensive andesitic lava-flow complexes were emplaced in the mid-Holocene (7–4 ka). Ages of three smaller Holocene andesite units are less well constrained. A phreatomagmatic ejecta cone and associated andesite lavas that together cap the summit may be of latest Pleistocene age, but a thin layer of mid-Holocene tephra appears to have erupted there as well. An alpine-meadow section on the southeast flank contains 24 locally derived Holocene andesitic ash layers intercalated with several silicic tephras from Mazama and St. Helens. Microprobe analyses of phenocrysts from the ash layers and postglacial lavas suggest a few correlations and refine some age constraints. Approximately 6 ka, a 0.07-km³ debris avalanche from the southwest face of Mount Adams generated a clay-rich debris flow that devastated >30 km² south of the volcano. A gravitationally metastable 2-to 3-km³ reservoir of hydrothermally altered fragmental andesite remains on the ice-capped summit and, towering 3 km above the surrounding lowlands, represents a greater hazard than an eruptive recurrence in the style of the last 15 k.y. Received: 24 June 1996 / Accepted: 6 December 1996     

Geology and eruptive history of Unzen volcano, Shimabara Peninsula, Kyushu, SW Japan

During the past 500 thousand years, Unzen volcano, an active composite volcano in the Southwest Japan Arc, has erupted lavas and pyroclastic materials of andesite to dacite composition and has developed a volcanotectonic graben. The volcano can be divided into the Older and the Younger Unzen volcanoes. The exposed rocks of the Older Unzen volcano are composed of thick lava flows and pyroclastic deposits dated around 200–300 ka. Drill cores recovered from the basal part of the Older Unzen volcano are dated at 400–500 ka. The volcanic rocks of the Older Unzen exceed 120 km³ in volume. The Younger Unzen volcano is composed of lava domes and pyroclastic deposits, mostly younger than 100 ka. This younger volcanic edifice comprises Nodake, Myokendake, Fugendake, and Mayuyama volcanoes. Nodake, Myokendake and Fugendake volcanoes are 100–70 ka, 30–20 ka, and <20 ka, respectively. Mayuyama volcano formed huge lava domes on the eastern flank of the Unzen composite volcano about 4000 years ago. Total eruptive volume of the Younger Unzen volcano is about 8 km³, and the eruptive production rate is one order of magnitude smaller than that of the Older Unzen volcano.     

The Holocene Pucón eruption of Volcán Villarrica, Chile: deposit architecture and eruption chronology

The Pucón eruption was the largest Holocene explosive outburst of Volcán Villarrica, Chile. It discharged >1.0 km³ of basaltic-andesite magma and >0.8 km³ of pre-existing rock, forming a thin scoria-fall deposit overlain by voluminous ignimbrite intercalated with pyroclastic surge beds. The deposits are up to 70 m thick and are preserved up to 21 km from the present-day summit, post-eruptive lahar deposits extending farther. Two ignimbrite units are distinguished: a lower one (P1) in which all accidental lithic clasts are of volcanic origin and an upper unit (P2) in which basement granitoids also occur, both as free clasts and as xenoliths in scoria. P2 accounts for ∼80% of the erupted products. Following the initial scoria fallout phase, P1 pyroclastic flows swept down the northern and western flanks of the volcano, magma fragmentation during this phase being confined to within the volcanic edifice. Following a pause of at least a couple of days sufficient for wood devolatilization, eruption recommenced, the fragmentation level dropped to within the granitoid basement, and the pyroclastic flows of P2 were erupted. The first P2 flow had a highly turbulent front, laid down ignimbrite with large-scale cross-stratification and regressive bedforms, and sheared the ground; flow then waned and became confined to the southeastern flank. Following emplacement of pyroclastic surge deposits all across the volcano, the eruption terminated with pyroclastic flows down the northern flank. Multiple lahars were generated prior to the onset of a new eruptive cycle. Charcoal samples yield a probable eruption age of 3,510 ± 60 ¹⁴C years BP.     

Late Holocene eruptive activity at Nevado Cayambe Volcano, Ecuador

 Four Late Holocene pyroclastic units composed of block and ash flows, surges, ashfalls of silicic andesite and dacite composition, and associated lahar deposits represent the recent products emitted by domes on the upper part of Nevado Cayambe, a large ice-capped volcano 60 km northeast of Quito. These units are correlated stratigraphically with fallout deposits (ash and lapilli) exposed in a peat bog. Based on ¹⁴C dating of the peat and charcoal, the following ages were obtained: ∼910 years BP for the oldest unit, 680–650 years BP for the second, and 400–360 years BP for the two youngest units. Moreover, the detailed tephrochronology observed in the peat bog and in other sections implies at least 21 volcanic events during the last 4000 years, comprising three principal eruptive phases of activity that are ∼300, 800, and 900 years in duration and separated by repose intervals of 600–1000 years. The last phase, to which the four pyroclastic units belong, has probably not ended, as suggested by an eruption in 1785–1786. Thus, Cayambe, previously thought to have been dormant for a long time, should be considered active and potentially dangerous to the nearby population of the Interandean Valley. Received: 5 July 1997 / Accepted: 21 October 1997     

The Taurewa Eruptive Episode: evidence for climactic eruptions at Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand

 The ca. 10,500 years B.P. eruptions at Ruapehu volcano deposited 0.2–0.3 km³ of tephra on the flanks of Ruapehu and the surrounding ring plain and generated the only known pyroclastic flows from this volcano in the late Quaternary. Evidence of the eruptions is recorded in the stratigraphy of the volcanic ring plain and cone, where pyroclastic flow deposits and several lithologically similar tephra deposits are identified. These deposits are grouped into the newly defined Taurewa Formation and two members, Okupata Member (tephra-fall deposits) and Pourahu Member (pyroclastic flow deposits). These eruptions identify a brief (<ca. 2000-year) but explosive period of volcanism at Ruapehu, which we define as the Taurewa Eruptive Episode. This Episode represents the largest event within Ruapehu's ca. 22,500-year eruptive history and also marks its culmination in activity ca. 10,000 years B.P. Following this episode, Ruapehu volcano entered a ca. 8000-year period of relative quiescence. We propose that the episode began with the eruption of small-volume pyroclastic flows triggered by a magma-mingling event. Flows from this event travelled down valleys east and west of Ruapehu onto the upper volcanic ring plain, where their distal remnants are preserved. The genesis of these deposits is inferred from the remanent magnetisation of pumice and lithic clasts. We envisage contemporaneous eruption and emplacement of distal pumice-rich tephras and proximal welded tuff deposits. The potential for generation of pyroclastic flows during plinian eruptions at Ruapehu has not been previously considered in hazard assessments at this volcano. Recognition of these events in the volcanological record is thus an important new factor in future risk assessments and mitigation of volcanic risk at Tongariro Volcanic Centre. Received: 5 July 1998 / Accepted: 12 March 1999     

The Middle Scoria sequence: A Holocene violent strombolian, subplinian and phreatomagmatic eruption of Okmok volcano, Alaska

The Middle Scoria deposit represents an explosive eruption of basaltic andesite magma (54 wt. % SiO₂) from Okmok volcano during mid-Holocene time. The pattern of dispersal and characteristics of the ejecta indicate that the eruption opened explosively, with ash textural evidence for a limited degree of phreatomagmatism. The second phase of the eruption produced thick vesicular scoria deposits with grain texture, size and dispersal characteristics that indicate it was violent strombolian to subplinian in style. The third eruptive phase produced deposits with a shift towards grain shapes that are dense, blocky, and poorly vesicular, and intermittent surge layers, indicating later transitions between magmatic (violent strombolian) to phreatomagmatic (vulcanian) eruptive styles. Isopach maps yield bulk volume estimates that range from 0.06 to 0.43 km³, with ~ 0.04 to 0.25 km³ total DRE. The associated column heights and mass discharge values calculated from isopleth maps of individual Middle Scoria layers are 8.5 – 14 km and 0.4 to 45 × 10⁶ kg/s. The Middle Scoria tephras are enriched in plagioclase microlites that have the textural characteristics of rapid magma ascent and relatively high degrees of effective undercooling. Those textures probably reflect the rapid magma ascent accompanying the violent strombolian and subplinian phases of the eruption. In the later stages of the eruption, the plagioclase microlite number densities decrease and textures include more tabular plagioclase, indicating a slowing of the ascent rate. The findings on the Middle Scoria are consistent with other explosive mafic eruptions, and show that outside of the two large caldera-forming eruptions, Okmok is also capable of producing violent mafic eruptions, marked by varying degrees of phreatomagmatism.     

Objective rapid delineation of areas at risk from block-and-ash pyroclastic flows and surges

Assessments of pyroclastic flow (PF) hazards are commonly based on mapping of PF and surge deposits and estimations of inundation limits, and/or computer models of varying degrees of sophistication. In volcanic crises a PF hazard map may be sorely needed, but limited time, exposures, or safety aspects may preclude fieldwork, and insufficient time or baseline data may be available for reliable dynamic simulations. We have developed a statistically constrained simulation model for block-and-ash type PFs to estimate potential areas of inundation by adapting methodology from Iverson et al. (Geol Soc America Bull 110:972–984, 1998) for lahars. The predictive equations for block-and-ash PFs are calibrated with data from several volcanoes and given by A = (0.05 to 0.1)V ^2/3, B = (35 to 40)V ^2/3, where A is cross-sectional area of inundation, B is planimetric area and V is deposit volume. The proportionality coefficients were obtained from regression analyses and comparison of simulations to mapped deposits. The method embeds the predictive equations in a GIS program coupled with DEM topography, using the LAHARZ program of Schilling (1998). Although the method is objective and reproducible, any PF hazard zone so computed should be considered as an approximate guide only, due to uncertainties on the coefficients applicable to individual PFs, the authenticity of DEM details, and the volume of future collapses. The statistical uncertainty of the predictive equations, which imply a factor of two or more in predicting A or B for a specified V, is superposed on the uncertainty of forecasting V for the next PF to descend a particular valley. Multiple inundation zones, produced by simulations using a selected range of volumes, partly accommodate these uncertainties. The resulting maps show graphically that PF inundation potentials are highest nearest volcano sources and along valley thalwegs, and diminish with distance from source and lateral distance from thalweg. The model does not explicitly consider dynamic behavior, which can be important. Ash-cloud surge impact limits must be extended beyond PF hazard zones and we provide several approaches to do this. The method has been used to supply PF and surge hazard maps in two crises: Merapi 2006; and Montserrat 2006–2007.     

Origin, characteristics, and behaviour of lahars following the 1990 eruption of Kelud volcano, eastern Java (Indonesia)

 In contrast to most twentieth-century eruptions of Kelud volcano (eastern Java), the 10 February 1990 plinian eruption was not accompanied by lake-outburst lahars. However, at least 33 post-eruption lahars occurred between 15 February and 28 March 1990. They swept down 11 drainage systems and travelled as far as 24 km at an estimated mean peak velocity in the range of 4–11 m s^–1. The deposits (volume ≥30 000 000 m³) were approximately 7 m thick 2 km from vent, and 3 m thick 10 km from vent, on the volcaniclastic apron surrounding the volcano. Subtle but significant sedimentological differences in the deposits relate to four flow types: (a) Early, massive deposits are coarse, poorly sorted, slightly cohesive, and commonly inversely graded. They are inferred to record hot lahars that incorporated pumice and scoria from pyroclastic-flow deposits, probably by rapid remobilization of hot proximal pyroclastic flow deposits by rainfall runoff. Sedimentary features, such as clasts subparallel to bedding and thick, reversely to ungraded beds, suggest that these flows were laminar. (b) Abundant, very poorly sorted deposits include non-cohesive, clast-supported, inversely graded beds and ungraded, finer-grained, and cohesive matrix-supported beds. These beds display layering and vertical segregation/density stratification, suggesting unsteady properties of pulsing debris flows. They are interpreted as deposited from segments of flow waves at a middle distance downstream that incorporated pre-eruption sediments. Sedimentological evidence suggests unsteady flow properties during progressive aggradation. (c) Fine-grained, poorly sorted and ungraded deposits are interpreted as recording late hyperconcentrated streamflows that formed in the waning stage of an overflow and transformed downcurrent into streamflows. (d) Ungraded, crudely stratified deposits were emplaced by flows transitional between hyperconcentrated flows and streamflows that traveled farther downvalley (as far as 27 km from the vent). At Kelud, the transformation of flow and behavior occurs within only 10 km of the source, at the apex of the alluvial fans. The rapid change of flow behavior is attributed to the low fines content and to the unsteady flow regime, which may be due to: (a) the rapid deposition of bedload, owing to the break in channel gradient close to the vent and to changes in channel cross-section and roughness; and (b) the very low silt+clay content in the non-cohesive deposits. These deposits mix with water to produce streamflows. Received: 27 June 1997 / Accepted: 5 January 1998     

Gigantic directed blast at Shiveluch volcano (Kamchatka)

On November 12, 1964, after a long swarm of preliminary earthquakes a gigantic directed blast took place at Shiveluch Volcano. The Crater top of the volcano with five large domes was completely destroyed. The deposits of the directed blast fell on an area of 98 sq. km, at a distance up to 10 km from the crater. The volume of the deposits is 1.5 km³ at least. A new crater was formed, its size is 1.5 × 3 km. Numerous pyroclastic flows were poured out the new crater. The eruption lasted only one hour, its thermal energy is 1,3 × 10²⁵ ergs, kinetic energy of the blast ? 1 × 10²⁴ ergs, air wave energy ? 1,8 × 10²¹ ergs. Initial velocity of the explosion: 280–310m/sec, pressure: 800–1000atm. The eruption of Shiveluch volcano belongs to the « Bezymianny type » eruption.     

Eruptive history and petrology of Mount Drum volcano,Wrangell Mountains,Alaska

Mount Drum is one of the youngest volcanoes in the subduction-related Wrangell volcanic field (80×200 km) of southcentral Alaska. It lies at the northwest end of a series of large, andesite-dominated shield volcanoes that show a northwesterly progression of age from 26 Ma near the Alaska-Yukon border to about 0.2 Ma at Mount Drum. The volcano was constructed between 750 and 250 ka during at least two cycles of cone building and ring-dome emplacement and was partially destroyed by violent explosive activity probably after 250 ka. Cone lavas range from basaltic andesite to dacite in composition; ring-domes are dacite to rhyolite. The last constructional activity occurred in the vicinity of Snider Peak, on the south flank of the volcano, where extensive dacite flows and a dacite dome erupted at about 250 ka. The climactic explosive eruption, that destroyed the top and a part of the south flank of the volcano, produced more than 7 km³ of proximal hot and cold avalanche deposits and distal mudflows. The Mount Drum rocks have medium-K, calc-alkaline affinities and are generally plagioclase phyric. Silica contents range from 55.8 to 74.0 wt%, with a compositional gap between 66.8 and 72.8 wt%. All the rocks are enriched in alkali elements and depleted in Ta relative to the LREE, typical of volcanic arc rocks, but have higher MgO contents at a given SiO₂, than typical orogenic medium-K andesites. Strontium-isotope ratios vary from 0.70292 to 0.70353. The compositional range of Mount Drum lavas is best explained by a combination of diverse parental magmas, magma mixing, and fractionation. The small, but significant, range in ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios in the basaltic andesites and the wide range of incompatible-element ratios exhibited by the basaltic andesites and andesites suggests the presence of compositionally diverse parent magmas. The lavas show abundant petrographic evidence of magma mixing, such as bimodal phenocryst size, resorbed phenocrysts, reaction rims, and disequilibrium mineral assemblages. In addition, some dacites and andesites contain Mg and Ni-rich olivines and/or have high MgO, Cr, Ni, Co, and Sc contents that are not in equilibrium with the host rock and indicate mixing between basalt or cumulate material and more evolved magmas. Incompatible element variations suggest that fractionation is responsible for some of the compositional range between basaltic andesite and dacite, but the rhyolites have K, Ba, Th, and Rb contents that are too low for the magmas to be generated by fractionation of the intermediate rocks. Limited Sr-isotope data support the possibility that the rhyolites may be partial melts of underlying volcanic rocks. Received March 13, 1993/Accepted September 10, 1993     

Pyroclastic surges and flows from the 8–10 May 1997 explosive eruption of Bezymianny volcano, Kamchatka, Russia

The 8-10 May 1997 eruption of Bezymianny volcano began with extrusion of a crystallized plug from the vent in the upper part of the dome. Progressive gravitational collapses of the plug caused decompression of highly crystalline magma in the upper conduit, leading at 13:12 local time on 9 May to a powerful, vertical Vulcanian explosion. The dense pyroclastic mixture collapsed in boil-over style to generate a pyroclastic surge which was focused toward the southeast by the steep-walled, 1956 horseshoe-shaped crater. This surge, with a temperature <200 °C, covered an elliptical area >30 km² with deposits as much as 30 cm thick and extending 7 km from the vent. The surge deposits comprised massive to vaguely laminated, gravelly sand (Md -1.2 to 3.7J sorting 1.2 to 3J) of poorly vesiculated andesite (mean density 1.82 g cm^-3; vesicularity 30 vol%; SiO₂ content ~58.0 wt%). The deposits, with a volume of 5-15᎒⁶ m³, became finer grained and better sorted with distance; the maximal diameter of juvenile clasts decreased from 46 to 4 cm. The transport and deposition of the surge over a snowy landscape generated extensive lahars which traveled >30 km. Immediately following the surge, semi-vesiculated block-and-ash flows were emplaced as far as 4.7 km from the vent. Over time the juvenile lava in clasts of these flows became progressively less crystallized, apparently more silicic (59.0 to 59.9 wt% SiO₂) and more vesiculated (density 1.64 to 1.12 g cm^-3; vesicularity 37 to 57 vol%). At this stage the eruption showed transitional behavior, with mass divided between collapsing fountain and buoyant column. The youngest pumice-and-ash flows were accompanied by a sustained sub-Plinian eruption column ~14 km high, from which platy fallout clasts were deposited (~59.7% SiO₂; density 1.09 g cm^-3; vesicularity 58 vol%). The explosive activity lasted about 37 min and produced a total of ~0.026 km³ dense rock equivalent of magma, with an average discharge of ~1.2᎒⁴ m³ s^-1. A lava flow ~200 m long terminated the eruption. The evolutionary succession of different eruptive styles during the explosive eruption was caused by vertical gradients in crystallization and volatile content of the conduit magma, which produced significant changes in the properties of the erupting mixture.     

Caldera formation at Volcán Colima, Mexico, by a large large holocene volcanic debris avalanche

About 4,300 years ago, 10 km³ of the upper cone of ancestral Volcán Colima collapsed to the southwest leaving a horseshoe-shaped caldera 4 km in diameter. The collapse produced a massive volcanic debris avalanche deposit covering over 1550 km² on the southern flanks of the volcano and extending at least 70 km from the former summit. The avalanche followed a steep topographic gradient unobstructed by barriers, resulting in an unusually high area/volume ratio for the Colima deposit. The apparent coefficient of friction (fall height/distance traveled) for the Colima avalanche is 0.06, a low value similar to those of other large-volume deposits. The debris avalanche deposit contains 40–75% angular volcanic clasts from the ancestral cone, a small proportion of vesicular blocks that may be juvenile, and in distal exposures, rare carbonate clasts plucked from the underlying surface by the moving avalanche. Clasts range in size to over 20 m in diameter and are brecciated to different degrees, pulverized, and surrounded by a rock-flour matrix. The upper surface of the deposit shows prominent hummocky topography with closed depressions and surface boulders. A thick, coarse-grained, compositionally zoned scoria-fall layer on the upper northeastern slope of the volcano may have erupted at the time of collapse. A fine-grained surge layer is present beneath the avalanche deposit at one locality, apparently representing an initial blast event. Most of the missing volume of the ancestral volcano has since been restored at an average rate of 0.002 km³/yr through repeated eruptions from the post-caldera cone. As a result, the southern slope of Volcán Colima may again be susceptible to collapse. Over 200,000 people are now living on primary or secondary deposits of the debris avalanche, and a repetition of this event would constitute a volcanic disaster of great magnitude.Ancestral Volcán Colima grew on the southern, trenchward flank of the earlier and larger volcano Nevado de Colima. Trenchward collapse was favored by the buttressing effect of Nevado, the rapid elevation drop to the south, and the intrusion of magma into the southern flank of the ancestral volcano. Other such trenchward-younging, paired volcanoes are known from Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Chile, and Japan. The trenchward slopes of the younger cones are common sites for cone collapse to form avalanche deposits, as occurred at Colima and Popocatepetl in Mexico and at San Pedro Volcano in Chile.     

Sumisu volcano,Izu-Bonin arc,Japan: site of a silicic caldera-forming eruption from a small open-ocean island

Sumisu volcano was the site of an eruption during 30–60 ka that introduced ∼48–50 km³ of rhyolite tephra into the open-ocean environment at the front of the Izu-Bonin arc. The resulting caldera is 8 × 10 km in diameter, has steep inner walls 550–780 m high, and a floor averaging 900 m below sea level. In the course of five research cruises to the Sumisu area, a manned submersible, two ROVs, a Deep-Tow camera sled, and dredge samples were used to study the caldera and surrounding areas. These studies were augmented by newly acquired single-channel seismic profiles and multi-beam seafloor swath-mapping. Caldera-wall traverses show that pre-caldera eruptions built a complex of overlapping dacitic and basaltic edifices, that eventually grew above sea level to form an island about 200 m high. The caldera-forming eruption began on the island and probably produced a large eruption column. We interpret that prodigious rates of tephra fallback overwhelmed the Sumisu area, forming huge rafts of floating pumice, choking the nearby water column with hyperconcentrations of slowly settling tephra, and generating pyroclastic gravity currents of water-saturated pumice that traveled downslope along the sea floor. Thick, compositionally similar pumice deposits encountered in ODP Leg 126 cores 70 km to the south could have been deposited by these gravity currents. The caldera-rim, presently at ocean depths of 100–400 m, is mantled by an extensive layer of coarse dense lithic clasts, but syn-caldera pumice deposits are only thin and locally preserved. The paucity of syn-caldera pumice could be due to the combined effects of proximal non-deposition and later erosion by strong ocean currents. Post-caldera edifice instability resulted in the collapse of a 15° sector of the eastern caldera rim and the formation of bathymetrically conspicuous wavy slump structures that disturb much of the volcano’s surface.     

Reappraisal of the 1982 eruptions of El Chichón Volcano, Chiapas, Mexico: new data from proximal deposits

 Additional data from proximal areas enable a reconstruction of the stratigraphy and the eruptive chronology of phases III and IV of the 1982 eruption of El Chichón Volcano. Phase III began on 4 April at 0135 GMT with a powerful hydromagmatic explosion that generated radially fast-moving (∼100 ms^–1) pyroclastic clouds that produced a surge deposit (S1). Due to the sudden reduction in the confining pressure the process continued by tapping of magma from a deeper source, causing a new explosion. The ejected juvenile material mixed with large amounts of fragmented dome and wall rock, which were dispersed laterally in several pulses as lithic-rich block-and-ash flow (F1). Partial evacuation of juvenile material from the magmatic system prompted the entrance of external water to generate a series of hydromagmatic explosions that dispersed moisture-rich surge clouds and small-volume block-and-ash flows (IU) up to distances of 3 km from the crater. The eruption continued by further decompression of the magmatic system, with the ensuing emission of smaller amounts of gas-rich magma which, with the strong erosion of the volcanic conduit, formed a lithic-rich Plinian column that deposited fallout layer B. Associated with the widening of the vent, an increase in the effective density of the uprising column took place, causing its collapse. Block-and-ash flows arising from the column collapse traveled along valleys as a dense laminar flow (F2). In some places, flow regime changes due to topographic obstacles promoted transformation into a turbulent surge (S2) which attained minimum velocities of approximately 77 ms^–1 near the volcano. The process continued with the formation of a new column on 4 April at 1135 GMT (phase IV) that emplaced fall deposit C and was followed by hydromagmatic explosions which produced pyroclastic surges (S3). Received: 13 May 1996 / Accepted: 12 November 1996     

Holocene explosive activity of Hudson Volcano, southern Andes

 Fallout deposits in the vicinity of the southern Andean Hudson Volcano record at least 12 explosive Holocene eruptions, including that of August 1991 which produced ≥4 km³ of pyroclastic material. Medial isopachs of compacted fallout deposits for two of the prehistoric Hudson eruptions, dated at approximately 3600 and 6700 BP, enclose areas at least twice that of equivalent isopachs for both the 1991 Hudson and the 1932 Quizapu eruptions, the two largest in the Andes this century. However, lack of information for either the proximal or distal tephra deposits from these two prehistoric eruptions of Hudson precludes accurate volume estimates. Andesitic pyroclastic material produced by the 6700-BP event, including a  1 10-cm-thick layer of compacted tephra that constitutes a secondary thickness maximum over 900 km to the south in Tierra del Fuego, was dispersed in a more southerly direction than that of the 1991 Hudson eruption. The products of the 6700-BP event consist of a large proportion of fine pumiceous ash and accretionary lapilli, indicating a violent phreatomagmatic eruption. This eruption, which is considered to be the largest for Hudson and possibly for any volcano in the southern Andes during the Holocene, may have created Hudson's 10-km-diameter summit caldera, but the age of the caldera has not been dated independently. Received: 31 January 1997 / Accepted: 29 October 1997     

A gigantic Bezymianny-type event at the beginning of modern volcan Popocatepetl

The history of volcan Popocatepetl can be divided into two main periods: the formation of a large primitive volcano — approximatively 30 km wide — on which is superimposed a modern cone (6–8 km in diameter and 1700m high). A major event of Bezymianny type marks the transition between these two dissimilar periods.The activity of the primitive volcano was essentially effusive and lasted several hundred thousands of years. The total volume of products ejected by the volcano is of the order of 500–600 km³. Its last differentiated magmas are dacitic.A gigantic debris flow (D.F.) spread on the southern side is related to the Bezymianny-type event which destroyed the summit area of the ancient edifice. An elliptical caldera ( 6.5 × 11 km wide) was formed by the landslide. Its deposits, with a typical hummocky surface, cover 300 km² for a volume of 28–30 km³. Numerous outcrops belonging to this debris flow show “slabs” of more or less fractured and dislocated rocks that come from the primitive volcano. These deposits are compared to two studied debris flows of similar extent and volume: the Mount Shasta and Colima's D.F.This eruption takes a major place in the volcanologic and magmatic history of Popocatepetl: pyroclastic products of surge-type with “laminites” and crude layers, ashflows, and pumiceous airfall layers are directly related to this event and begin the history of the modern volcano probably less than 50,000 years ago. In addition, a second andesitic and dacitic phase rose both from the central vent — forming the basis of modern Popo — and from lateral vents.The terminal cone is characterized by long periods of construction by lava flows alternating with phases of destruction, the duration of these episodes being 1000 to 2000 years. The cone is composed of two edifices: the first, volcan El Fraile, began with effusive activity and was partly destroyed by three periods of intense explosive activity. The first period occurred prior to 10.000 years B.P., the second from 10.000 to 8000 years B.P. and the third from 5000 to 3800 years B.P. Each period of destruction shows cycles producing collapsing pyroclastic flows or nuées of the St Vincent-type related to the opening of large craters, plinian air-fall deposits and minor lava flows. The second edifice, the summit Popo, produced lava flows until 1200 years B.P. and since that time, entered into an explosive period. Two cataclysmic episodes, each including major pyroclastic eruptions, occurred 1200 and 900–1000 years ago. During the Pre-Hispanic and historic times effusive activity was restricted entirely to the summit area alternating with plinian eruptions. Nevertheless, despite the quiet appearance of the volcano, the last period of pyroclastic activity which started 1200 years ago may not have ended and can be very dangerous for the nearby populations.     

Volcanology of trachytic and associated basaltic pyroclastic deposits at Roccamonfina volcano, Roman Region, Italy

The 274 ka “Basalt-Trachytic Tuff of Tuoripunzoli” (TBTT) from Roccamonfina volcano (Roman Region, Italy) consists of a basaltic scoria lapilli fall (Unit A) overlain by a trachytic sequence formed by a surge (Unit B), repetitive pumice lapilli and ash-rich layers both of fallout origin (Unit C) and a pyroclastic flow deposit (Unit D). The TBTT is widespread (40 km²) in the northern sector of the volcano, but limited to a small area on the southern slopes of the main cone. Interpolation between the northern deposits and the latter one yields a minimum depositional area of 123 km², and an approximate bulk volume of 0.2-0.3 km³. Isopach and isopleth maps are consistent with a source vent within the main caldera of Roccamonfina.Unit A shows a fairly good sorting and a moderate grain size; glass fragments are cuspate and vesicular. Unit B is fine grained and poorly sorted; shards are blocky and nonvesicular. Pumice lapilli of Unit C are moderately sorted and moderately coarse grained. Glass shards are equant and vesicular. Lithic clasts are strongly comminuted to submillimetric sizes. By contrast, the ash-rich internal divisions are very fine grained and poorly sorted. They consist of a mixture of equant shards which are prevailingly blocky and poorly vesicular. Unit D is a massive, poorly sorted, moderately coarse-grained deposit. Glass fragments are nearly equant and slightly or nonvesicular.The TBTT is interpreted as due to eruption of a basaltic magma followed in rapid succession by one trachyte magma. Unit A formed by Subplinian fallout of a moderate, purely magmatic column. Interaction between a trachyte magma and water resulted in eruption of surge Unit B. A high-standing eruption column erupted alternating fallout pumice lapilli and fallout ashes. Pumice lapilli originated prevailingly from the inner part of the eruption column, whereas magma-water interaction on the external parts of the column resulted in ash fallout. The uppermost pyroclastic flow Unit D is interpreted as due to final collapse of the eruption column.