Recent hydrothermal explosion craters in an old hyaloclastite flow, central Iceland

Hundreds of small (diameter 2–50 m) hydrothermal explosion craters are dispersed across the top plateau of a hyaloclastite ridge in central Iceland. The craters are undisturbed by erosion and must be of Recent age. The ridge, Dyngjufjöll Ytri, is a tectonic horst, separated from the Dyngjufjöll volcanic center and the Askja caldera by a narrow graben. The ridge is 20 km by 6 km with a flat top partly covered with glacial sediments and air-fall tephra. It is composed of two major volcanic units, a lower hyaloclastite flow and an upper complex series containing pillow lavas, air-fall and surge tephra deposits and water lain sediments. Large (max. 9 m diameter) cylindrical gas pipes, coated with calcite, are locally exposed in the hyaloclastite flow. Evidence suggests that volcanism contributing to the formation of the ridge was long extinct when its surface was broken by the hydrothermal explosions. The elevated position of the ridge and its narrow form make unlikely the existence of a long-lived hydrothermal system. This is also borne out by the absence of intense thermal alteration of the material blown out in the explosions. The ridge is surrounded by postglacial lavas. One of these lavas issued from a fissure with the same strike as the ridge that terminates in a small crater at the base of its southern slope. It is suggested that the fissure continues as an intrusion into the basal hyaloclastite flow where water in gas pipes of the hyaloclastite was converted into high-pressure steam that exploded through the overlying unconsolidated formations.     

Comets, craters and cosmology

Peter Bond recounts another attempt to visit Mars, yet more data from Galileo and the benefits that result from applying a variety of instruments to a tricky problem.     

Reconnaissance geophysics and geology of the Pinacate craters,Sonora, Mexico

The Pinacate volcanic field of northwest Sonora, Mexico contains eleven tuff-rimmed explosion craters as well as hundreds of cinder cones. A multiphase eruptive and collapse history for each of the craters is evidenced by: cinder cones exposed in cross-section in crater rims, rim-breaking cinder cones, major eccentric vents, erosion hiatuses between tuff deposition, and coalescing craters exhibiting differeng degrees of erosion. Basaltic intrusions occurred along ring fractures and in the center of at least one crater. Magnetic surveys indicate that explosion craters have tuffaceous feeder vents whereas cinder cones have basaltic, highly magnetic plugs. Computer models illustrate that magnetic terrain effects can contribute to anomalies observed associated with craters, and need to be considered where magnetic surveys include irregularities such as rims or peaks.     

Ukinrek Maars, Alaska, II. Deposits and formation of the 1977 craters

The initial phase of the eruption forming Ukinrek Maars during March and April 1977 were explosions from the site of West Maar. These were mainly phreatomagmatic and initially transitional to strombolian. Activity at West Maar ceased after three days upon the initiation of the East Maar. The crater quickly grew by strong phreatomagmatic explosions. During the first phases of phreatomagmatic activity at East Maar, large exotic blocks derived from a subsurface till were ejected. Ballistic studies indicate muzzle velocities for these blocks of 80–90 m s⁻¹.Phreatomagmatic explosions ejected both juvenile and non-juvenile material which formed a low rim of ejecta (< 26 mhigh) around the crater and a localized, coarse, wellsorted (σ_φ = 1−1.5) juvenile and lithic fall deposit. Other fine ash beds, interstratified with the coarse beds, are more poorly sorted (σ_φ = 2−3) and are interpreted as fallout of wet, cohesive ash from probably milder phases of activity in the crater. Minor base surge activity damaged trees and deposited fine ash, including layers plastered on vertical surfaces. Viscous basalt lava appeared in the center of the East Maar crater almost immediately and a lava dome gradually grew in the crater despite phreatomagmatic eruptions adjacent to it.The development of these maars appears to be mainly controlled by gradual collapse of crater and conduit walls, and blasting-out of the slumped debris by phreatomagmatic explosions when rising magma contacted groundwater beneath the regional water table and a local perched aquifer.Ballistic analysis on the ejected blocks indicates a maximum muzzle velocity of 100–150 m s^-1, values similar to those obtained from other ballistic studies on maar ejecta.     

爆破、矿震与地震的波谱差异

根据辽宁数字地震台网记录的爆破、矿震与地震的数字资料,采用波谱分析的方法,选取4个台站对其所在区域182个爆破、矿震与地震事件的记录,对比研究波谱特征,发现爆破、矿震与地震的纵横波拐角频率fc(P,S)及最大谱值等存在的差异。     

Explosion craters associated with shallow submarine gas venting off Panarea island, Italy

Explosions of hot water, steam, and gas are common periodic events of subaerial geothermal systems. These highly destructive events may cause loss of life and substantial damage to infrastructure, especially in densely populated areas and where geothermal systems are actively exploited for energy. We report on the occurrence of a large number of explosion craters associated with the offshore venting of gas and thermal waters at the volcanic island of Panarea, Italy, demonstrating that violent explosions similar to those observed on land also are common in the shallow submarine environment. With diameters ranging from 5 to over 100?m, the observed circular seafloor depressions record a history of major gas explosions caused by frequent perturbation of the submarine geothermal system over the past 10,000?years. Estimates of the total gas flux indicate that the Panarea geothermal system released over 70?Mt of CO₂ over this period of time, suggesting that CO₂ venting at submerged arc volcanoes contributes significantly to the global atmospheric budget of this greenhouse gas. The findings at Panarea highlight that shallow submarine gas explosions represent a previously unrecognized volcanic hazard around populated volcanic islands that needs to be taken into account in the development of risk management strategies.     

Ages of calderas,large explosive craters and active volcanoes in the Kuril-Kamchatka region,Russia

The ages of most of calderas, large explosive craters and active volcanoes in the Kuril-Kamchatka region have been determined by extensive geological, geomorphological, tephrochronological and isotopic geochronological studies, including more than 600 ¹⁴C dates. Eight Krakatoa-type and three Hawaiian-type calderas and no less than three large explosive craters formed here during the Holocene. Most of the Late Pleistocene Krakatoa-type calderas were established around 30 000–40 000 years ago. The active volcanoes are geologically very young, with maximum ages of about 40 000–50 000 years. The overwhelming majority of recently active volcanic cones originated at the very end of the Late Pleistocene or in the Holocene. These studies show that all Holocene stratovolcanoes in Kamchatka were emplaced in the Holocene only in the Eastern volcanic belt. Periods of synchronous, intensified Holocene volcanic activity occurred within the time intervals of 7500–7800 and 1300–1800 ¹⁴C years BP.     

The tsunami model of the origin of ring structures concentric with large lunar craters

The largest lunar craters are normally surrounded by one or more ring anticlines which are accompanied on their inner edges by ring synclines.     

解耦爆炸中震源位置偏离对激发S波的影响

对球形空腔偏心解耦爆炸进行了数值模拟,得到了不同方向和不同爆心距节点的S波和P波速度曲线以及岩石单元中拉伸应力的传播过程。结果表明：空腔偏心解耦爆炸激发的S波具有方向性,S波幅值与对应P波幅值相当,激发S波的物理机制是振荡的拉伸应力,它等效于偶极子震源。     

Spectral scaling in Mars topography: effect of craters

Extensive computer simulations aimed at testing a hypothesis that impact craters may explain the scaling behaviour of surface spectra are presented. The simulations show that indeed crater effects alone may explain the spectral scaling of Mars’ topography revealed from MOLA data. The range of the scaling exponents obtained for a wide range of simulation parameters does not exceed the limits observed for Mars. The simulations suggest that the shape of large craters is the key factor leading to the two scaling ranges in the surface spectra. Particular values of the scaling exponents may additionally depend on the depth-diameter relationship and the crater size distribution.     

Sub-surface structures and collapse mechanisms of summit pit craters

Summit pit craters are found in many types of volcanoes and are generally thought to be the product of collapse into an underpressured reservoir caused by magma withdrawal. We investigate the mechanisms and structures associated with summit pit crater formation by scaled analogue experiments and make comparisons with natural examples. Models use a sand plaster mixture as analogue rock over a cylinder of silicone simulating an underpressured magma reservoir. Experiments are carried out using different roof aspect ratios (roof thickness/roof width) of 0.2–2. They reveal two basic collapse mechanisms, dependant on the roof aspect ratio. One occurs at low aspect ratios (≤1), as illustrated by aspect ratios of 0.2 and 1. Outward dipping reverse faults initiated at the silicone margins propagates through the entire roof thickness and cause subsidence of a coherent block. Collapse along the reverse faults is accommodated by marginal flexure of the block and tension fractures at the surface (aspect ratio of 0.2) or by the creation of inward dipping normal faults delimiting a terrace (aspect ratio of 1). At an aspect ratio of 1, overhanging pit walls are the surface expressions of the reverse faults. Experiments at high aspect ratio (>1.2) reveal a second mechanism. In this case, collapse occurs by stopping, which propagates upwards by a complex pattern of both reverse faults and tension fractures. The initial underground collapse is restricted to a zone above the reservoir and creates a cavity with a stable roof above it. An intermediate mechanism occurs at aspect ratios of 1.1–1.2. In this case, stopping leads to the formation of a cavity with a thin and unstable roof, which collapses suddenly. The newly formed depression then exhibits overhanging walls. Surface morphology and structure of natural examples, such as the summit pit craters at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, have many of the features created in the models, indicating that the internal structural geometry of experiments can be applied to real examples. In particular, the surface area and depth of the underpressured reservoir can be roughly estimated. We present a morphological analysis of summit pit craters at volcanoes such as Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), San Cristobal, Telica and Masaya (Nicaragua), and Ubinas (Peru), and indicate a likely type of subsidence and possible position of the former magma reservoir responsible for collapse in each case.     

欧罗巴星陨石坑对冰层厚度的制约

欧罗巴（木卫二）是目前最有可能存在地外生物的星体,是空间探测计划的重点对象.欧罗巴冰层厚度直接制约着生物存在的可能性.另一方面,冰层厚度控制着温度结构、流变特性,进而制约着冰体构造特征及演化过程.前人基于板的挠曲,陨石坑分析,热-力学分析等方法得到的冰层厚度变化范围很大（小于1 km到大于30 km）.基于前人的研究,我们通过研究欧罗巴陨石坑的松弛过程进而约束冰层的厚度.本文将冰视为非牛顿流体,修正了前人在引用冰体实验数据过程中存在的不足.依据前人的研究思路,基于有限单元法及更新网格技术,取新近形成的陨石坑形状为初始几何模型,针对不同厚度的冰层,对欧罗巴最大陨石坑的松弛过程进行了动力学模拟.模拟结果显示：1）冰层越厚,所需松弛时间越长;2）冰层越厚,陨石坑附近的黏度越高,这是松弛时间相对较长的直接原因.本文认为欧罗巴冰层的厚度大于20 km.值得注意的是,作为端元模型,本文模型中冰层与基岩直接接触,后续研究将进一步考虑其他模型.

     

2019年3月江苏响水化工厂爆炸当量的估计

2019年3月21日江苏盐城响水化工厂发生爆炸,造成了巨大的人员伤亡和财产损失.人们很关心这次爆炸的规模以及它相当于多大当量的炸药爆炸.随着观测资料的增多与地震学方法的发展,利用地震学方法估算爆炸当量成为可能.本文收集了广岛核爆事件、美国化学爆炸试验、长白山人工震源勘探、朝鲜六次核试爆资料和前人研究成果,讨论了爆炸当量与爆炸所产生地震震级的关系,计算了爆炸能量转换地震波能量的比例.当某次爆炸发生时,如果其产生的地震事件被台站记录到,我们可以估算地震波的能量.进而根据地震波能量在爆炸总能量中的比例,估算爆炸事件释放的能量.本研究估计江苏响水爆炸事故所释放炸药量约为2.8~8.5 t TNT炸药.

     

工程爆破对地震前兆观测的影响

引言 确切地说,爆破只是地球表层的一种人工地震,它的震动波能被地震记录仪记录下来,而不会对前兆仪器及资料造成影响。但距台站较近的爆破,对地震台站前兆仪器会产生较大的影响,反映在观测资料上为跳变异常。本文就南京至杭州高速(以下称“宁杭”高速)公路溧阳段在施工过程中实施的爆破,对溧阳台地磁和体应变产生的影响作初步分析。 1 手段简介 溧阳台现有手段3套,即测震、地磁和体应变。测震和体应变在“九五”期间已经改造为数字化仪器。测震仪为FSS-3,由EDAS-C24A地震数据采集器实时采集数据,微机自动保存;体应变仪为TJ-IC,由DQ…     

工程微差爆破的监测与分析

工程微差爆破是近40年来控制爆破发展的新技术，它使工程爆破的使用领域得到拓展。原先只能在矿山或人烟稀少，远离建筑物地区进行的爆破施工，现在，即使在人口稠密、楼房鳞次栉比的城镇，甚至建筑物内部都有可能实施控制爆破。它减轻了劳动强度，缩短了施工期限，降低了工程成本。因此，具有较大的经济效益。随着特区建设的发展，厦门地区在港口建设、厂房场地平整等工程施工中大量使用了微差爆破。     

The long-term stability of engineered landforms of the Ranger Uranium Mine,Northern Territory,Australia: application of a catchment evolution model

There is a need to assess the long-term stability of engineered landforms associated with the rehabilitation of Ranger Uranium Mine, Northern Territory, Australia, as it is a requirement that mill tailings must be contained for periods in excess of 1000 years. The geomorphic model, SIBERIA, is calibrated on hydrologic and erosion data collected by a combination of monitoring and rainfall simulation experiments on the waste rock dumps of Ranger. Preliminary analysis of Ranger's preferred above-grade option suggests that erosion of the order of 7 to 8 m will occur on the structure in a period of 1000 years. This depth of erosion may be sufficient to compromise the integrity of containment. It is shown that SIBERIA has significant advantages over steady-state erosion models. Suggestions are made for the design that will enhance the stability of the structure and extend the structural life of the containment. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Explosive magma-water interactions: Thermodynamics,explosion mechanisms,and field studies

Physical analysis of explosive, magma-water interaction is complicated by several important controls: (1) the initial geometry and location of the contact between magma and water; (2) the process by which thermal energy is transferred from the magma to the water; (3) the degree to and manner by which the magma and water become intermingled prior to eruption; (4) the thermodynamic equation of state for mixtures of magma fragments and water; (5) the dynamic metastability of superheated water; and (6) the propagation of shock waves through the system. All of these controls can be analyzed while addressing aspects of tephra emplacement from the eruptive column by fallout, surge, and flow processes. An ideal thermodynamic treatment, in which the magma and external water are allowed to come to thermal equilibrium before explosive expansion, shows that the maximum system pressure and entropy are determined by the mass ratio of water and magma interacting. Explosive (thermodynamic) efficiency, measured by the ratio of maximum work potential to thermal energy of the magma, depends upon heat transfer from the pyroclasts to the vapor during the expansion stage. The adiabatic case, in which steam immediately separates from the tephra during ejection, produces lower efficiencies than does the isothermal case, in which heat is continually transferred from tephra to steam as it expands. Mechanisms by which thermal equilibrium between water and magma can be obtained require intimate mixing of the two. Interface instabilities of the Landau and Taylor type have been documented by experiments to cause fine-scale mixing prior to vapor explosion. In these cases, water is heated rapidly to a metastable state of superheat where vapor explosion occurs by spontaneous nucleation when a temperature limit is exceeded. Mixing may also be promoted by shock wave propagation. If the shock is of sufficient strength to break the magma into small pieces, thermal equilibrium and vapor production in its wake may drive the shock as a thermal detonation. Because these mechanisms of magma fragmentation allow calculation of grain size, vapor temperature and pressure, and pressure rise times, detailed emplacement models can be developed by critical field and laboratory analysis of the resulting tephra deposits. Deposits left by dense flows of tephra and wet steam as opposed to those left by dilute flows of dry steam and tephra show contrasts in median grain size, dispersal area, grain shape, grain surface chemistry, and bed form.     

Polychaetes as indicators of environmental disturbance on subarctic tidal flats, Iqaluit, Baffin Island, Nunavut Territory

The polychaetes of the tidal flats near the town of Iqaluit, Baffin Island were analysed along gradients of environmental disturbance resulting from human activity. Sources of environmental disturbance include a sewage lagoon, garbage sites; and an area of the tidal flat that is cleared by bulldozer. Sampling of the tidal flats included 300 biological sediment cores taken from 75 sites along seven transects. Environmental disturbance has resulted in four zones of polychaete communities with increasing distance. The heavily disturbed zone is closest to the disturbances and is devoid of polychaetes. The disturbed zone follows and is characterized by low diversity the result of increased densities of a few opportunistic species such as, Capitella 'capitata' sp. The moderately disturbed zone is characterized by increased species diversity due to organic enrichment from the disturbances. The undisturbed zone, located the furthest from the sources of disturbance, is characterized by moderate levels of diversity compared to the other three zones.