A Model to Calculate what a Remote Sensor `Sees' of an Urban Surface

Whilst the measurement of radiation emissions from a surface is relativelystraightforward, correct interpretation and proper utilization of the informationrequires that the surface area `seen' be known accurately. This becomes non-trivialwhen the target is an urban surface, due to its complex three-dimensional form andthe different thermal, radiative and moisture properties of its myriad surface facets.The geometric structure creates shade patterns in combination with the solar beamand obscures portions of the surface from the sensor, depending on where it is pointing and its field-of-view (FOV). A model to calculate these surface-sensor-sun relations (SUM) is described. SUM is tested against field and scale model observations, and theoretical calculations, and found to perform well. It can predict the surface area`seen' by a sensor of known FOV pointing in any direction when placed at any pointin space above a specified urban surface structure. Moreover, SUM can predict theview factors of the roof, wall and ground facets `seen' and whether they are sunlit orshaded at any location and time of day. SUM can be used to determine the optimalplacement and orientation of remote sensors to study urban radiation emissions; ifthe facet temperatures are known or modelled it can calculate the average temperatureof the system, and it can determine the directional variation of temperature (anisotropy) due to any particular surface-sensor-sun geometric combination. Thepresent surface geometry used in SUM is relatively simple, but there is scope to makeit increasingly realistic.     

上海市城区气温变化及城市热岛

利用上海市城区自动气象站观测资料和郊区气象站资料,对比分析了上海市城乡气温变化并分析了上海市的城市热岛特征。结果表明,上海市城区的气温分布有几个高温中心,分别位于北部的虹口体育馆、中部的静安区和西部的延安西路。夏季7月日平均气温在31.8℃以上,午后超过36℃。这些地方的日夜温差也大,夏季超过8℃,冬季仍在2℃以上,表明这是一种相对稳定的城市化加热分布。上海市城区气温日变化和年变化在各站间的差别不大,但明显不同于郊区,具有城市化的气候特征。上海城市热岛受城区和郊区气温变化的共同影响,由于城区和郊区气温变化不同步,故各有其独特的变化特征。上海城市热岛的日平均强度夏季7月大约为2.6℃,春季4月可达3.7℃,冬季1月在1℃以下。全年平均的热岛强度约为0.7℃。上海城市热岛的日变化为白天低、夜间高的多峰结构,午夜的高峰通常可达一天的最高值。上海城市热岛有明显的长期变化趋势,夏季7月的多年线性上升趋势超过0.05℃/a,但仍有继续增强的趋势。     

Urban Surface Modification as a Potential Ozone Air-quality Improvement Strategy in California: A Mesoscale Modelling Study

Two of several surface modification (heat-island reduction) strategies, increased surface albedo and urban reforestation, are evaluated via mesoscale meteorological and photochemical modelling of regulatory episodes in central and southern California. The simulations suggest that these strategies can have beneficial impacts on air quality, with increased albedo being relatively more effective than urban reforestation. The simulations also show that air quality indices, such as regional 1-h peaks, area peaks, 8-h relative reduction factors, 24-h averages, etc., improve for both central and southern California and that for the range of strategies evaluated here, the improvements in air quality can be significant. The simulations of southern California suggest that there may be a threshold beyond which further surface modifications tend to produce smaller net improvements in ozone air quality.     

基于Landsat卫星资料的苏州城市热岛效应遥感分析

为了对苏州市快速城市化进程中的热岛效应进行研究,采用三个时期的Landsat/TM遥感影像资料来反映地表热辐射信息。基于CART决策树分类得到每个时期的土地覆盖分类图,然后通过单通道算法反演得到地表温度,并对2个时期的地表温度进行标准化分级处理,计算得到采取本文定义,1986,1995及2004年的热岛面积指数分别为4.87%,11.10%和37.87%。研究了城市化过程中城市热岛强度和空间分布变化,分析了土地覆盖变化对热岛效应的影响。结果表明,苏州市存在比较明显的城市热岛效应,并且在20多年中随着城市化过程热岛范围进一步扩展。     

A Two-Dimensional Numerical Study of the Impact of a City on Atmospheric Circulation and Pollutant Dispersion in a Coastal Environment

The urban impact on the sea breeze is studied by means of a mesoscale model with a detailed urban parameterisation. Four simulations are carried out on an idealised two-dimensional flat domain. In the base case, half of the domain is characterised by seaand the other half by rural land. In the urban case, an urban area 10 km wide is added near the shoreline. Simulations are performed for a moist rural soil (weak sea breeze) and for a dry rural soil (strong sea breeze). Results are analysed in order to evaluate the impact of the city on the wind, temperature and turbulent kinetic energy fields. The dispersion of a passive tracer emitted near the coastline is, also, used in the comparison. Results show that the city accelerates the sea-breeze formation in the morning (combinations of urban circulation and sea breeze), but it slows thesea-breeze front penetration. Moreover, the presence of the city enhances the recirculation processes and strongly modifies the pollutant dispersion. These effects are enhanced for a moist rural soil.     

昆明城市热岛效应变化特征研究

利用昆明周边多个自动气象站观测的2004~2012年温度序列,研究了昆明城市热岛效应的日、季节和年际变化特征,并分析了昆明城市热岛水平分布和变化趋势。昆明城市热岛强度具有明显的日变化,夜间较强,白天较弱。城市热岛强度一般在早上08:00(北京时间,下同)达到最大值,在午后14:00减弱或消失。城市热岛强度在冬季最强,春、秋季次之,夏季最弱。昆明城市热岛强度多年平均值为1.27°C,在2004~2009年期间表现为逐年递减的趋势,其年际变化的主要影响因子是云量。2004~2007年昆明城市热岛中心主要分布在主城区。2008年以后,由于中小城镇经济和人口的迅速发展,昆明城市热岛面积不断扩大,并出现热岛中心向呈贡、石林一带偏移的现象。     

昆明地区城市热岛效应的再分析

在对地面气温资料进行均一性检验和订正的基础上,分析了1971—2008年昆明地区(包括城区、郊县和太华山)气温序列的变化趋势,研究了城市化对气温序列的可能影响,揭示了在城市化快速推进和低纬高原复杂地形条件下城市热岛效应的特殊性和复杂性。结果表明,昆明地区的平均气温总体呈上升趋势,上升速率大小依次为昆明城区>郊县>太华山。其中,昆明城区和郊县气温具有相似的变化规律,主要表现为冬、春季最低气温显著升高和气温日较差明显减小;太华山气温的变化则明显不同,主要表现为最低气温全年少变,冬、秋季最高气温小幅上升,而气温日较差有增大趋势。20世纪80年代中后期以来,昆明城区与郊县气温,特别是最低气温的显著上升可能受到城市化的严重影响,因此以往以郊县为对比乡村站的研究在很大程度上低估了城市化对昆明气温序列的影响。而在此之前,昆明最低和最高气温均会因对比乡村站选取的不同而表现出"城市冷岛"特征。     

昌吉市城市热岛效应的分析

通过对昌吉市和呼图壁县40多年的气温资料的统计分析,得到了昌吉市随着城市发展而产生热岛效应的变化过程;分析了昌吉市城市热岛效应对气温日变化、季节变化的影响,得到了气温变化的定量分析结果。     

从上海市热岛演变看城市绿化的重要意义

近40年来，上海城市热岛面积扩大了7－8倍，强度增强了一倍，导致了高温灾害的增加。上海热岛的迅速扩张和增强始于20世纪80年代，与上海城市的建设有明显的对应关系。如何合理规划城市建设，减缓热岛效应影响，以保证上海城市的健康和可持续发展，已成为一个迫切需要解决的问题。近几年来显示出的上海中心城区热岛强度减弱趋势表明，城市绿化建设对减缓城市热岛效应具有重要意义。     

北京"城市热岛"效应现状及特征

利用2002年北京自动气象站资料,对北京“城市热岛”效应现状进行了分析。为了与20世纪70年代的结果相比较,选择城区代表站为天安门广场站,城郊代表站为朝阳气象站站。与20世纪70年代相比,目前北京的“城市热岛”表现出一些新特点:1)利用城区与城郊日均温差表示的“城市热岛”强度的统计结果表明,现在北京的“城市热岛”效应在夏季最强,秋、冬季次之,春季最弱,2)除夏季“城市热岛”整天存在(午后的平均强度在2℃左右)以外,其他季节的午后,天安门广场地区经常出现“城市冷岛”现象。3)北京“城市热岛”消失的极限风速没有发生系统性变化,当风速>3级时,北京“城市热岛”基本上消失。作者还研究了北京“城市热岛”形成和消失的日变化特征,以及“城市热岛”强度对风速等气象要素变化的响应特征。值得指出的是,对强“城市热岛”的个案分析显示,冬季夜晚“城市热岛”强度经常表现出较大的波动性,与此相伴随,城郊地面风出现风向突变和风速的阵性现象。     

湖陆风对滨湖夏季气温和岳阳市城市热岛强度的影响

利用逐日逐时气象资料对岳阳市主城区近年夏季城市热岛强度进行了评估,探讨了东洞庭湖湖陆风对滨湖夏季气温以及城市热岛强度的影响。结果表明：平均气温郊区较城区、滨湖低1.47、1.11 ℃,最低气温郊区较城区、滨湖低1.89、2.03 ℃,最高气温城区较郊区高0.61 ℃、郊区较滨湖高0.63 ℃。白天城区气温高于郊区,郊区气温高于滨湖;夜间城区气温与滨湖基本相当,且明显高于郊区。各区逐时气温变率郊区最大,城区次之,滨湖最小,三者在23:00—次日6:00基本相当且变化较小。城区平均、最高、最低气温分别比郊区高1.47、0.61、1.89 ℃,对应城市热岛强度分别为弱、弱、中等。8:00—19:00城市热岛强度为弱,20:00—次日7:00为中等。滨湖9:00—18:00湖风强,19:00—次日8:00陆风弱。湖陆风与各区气温以及城市热岛强度均极显著相关。夜间城市热岛效应强于白天湖泊冷效应,白天城市热岛效应和夜间湖泊热效应随着站点与滨湖和郊区的距离远近影响强度不同,离滨湖越近的城市站白天受城市热岛效应影响越小,夜间受城市热岛效应影响越大。     

Numerical Studies on Urban Heat Island Associated with Urbanization in Yangtze Delta Region

ＮｕｍｅｒｉｃａｌＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎＵｒｂａｎＨｅａｔＩｓｌａｎｄＡｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈＵｒｂａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｉｎＹａｎｇｔｚｅＤｅｌｔａＲｅｇｉｏｎ①ＴａｎｇＹｏｕｈｕａ（唐有华）ＬＡＰＣ,ＩｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｏｆＡｔｍｏｓｐｈｅｒｉｃＰｈｙｓ...     

Wind Profile Diagnosis from Surface Routine Meteorological Data Over a Coastal Area

A simple algorithm is proposed in order to transform routine surface wind speed observations near the coast to a wind at the height of the equilibrium planetary boundary layer as well as to any other height over a relatively flat coastal region. The model is based on the well known internal boundary layer (IBL) concept, Monin-Obukhov similarity theory and the resistance law, and describes the effects of the roughness transition from sea to land as well as the effect of stability on the shape of the profiles and the IBL growth. The required input weather data are no more than surface wind speed, air temperature and total cloud cover. Satisfactory agreement was found between measurements at Hellinikon airport and estimations made with the scheme. The introduction of a transition layer above the IBL did not improve the agreement to any significant extent. Mean values of the estimated wind differed by less than 1 m s ^-1 from the observed ones, a difference within the accuracy of the reported rawinsonde values. The rms error varied in the range of 17–22% of the observed average value, giving the best agreement under unstable conditions. The correlation coefficient between the observed and the estimated values of the wind, at the height of the equilibrium planetary boundary layer, ranged between 0.74 and 0.90.     

单次极端高温过程中城市热岛效应的识别

利用高密度自动观测站逐时气温资料和NCEP再分析资料,按照客观的标准选择参考站,分析2010年7月2~6日北京一次极端高温过程中城市热岛强度(IUHI)对城区地面气温时空分布的影响。此次高温过程连续5日的日最高气温均超过35.0°C,为北京站1951年以来连续5日平均最高气温的最高值。大陆暖高压控制我国大部分地区,北京处于高压脊前,西北气流下沉增温,加之气流越山引起的焚风效应,是导致此次极端高温过程发生的环流背景。但受城市热岛效应影响,最高、最低和平均气温的空间分布均出现了以城区为中心的高值区,从城区中心向郊区平均IUHI逐渐减小,最低气温IUHI较大,四环线以内5日平均IUHI达到2.93°C,四、五环线之间1.87°C,五、六环线之间1.43°C;最高气温IUHI较小,但四环线以内,四、五环线之间和五、六环线之间5日平均IUHI仍分别达到1.45°C、0.96°C和0.72°C。在7月3~6日夜间,四环内IUHI极值均在3.00°C以上,特别是7月6日凌晨达到5.50°C;白天IUHI相对较小,其中2日早晨甚至还出现了负值。城区各地带IUHI日变化规律几乎同步,具有两个相对稳定阶段和两个快速变化阶段。稳定的强IUHI阶段从21:00(北京时间,下同)持续到次日05:00,稳定的弱IUHI阶段从08:00至18:00;05:00至08:00是IUHI快速衰减阶段,而18:00至21:00是IUHI快速上升阶段。因此,城市热岛效应对北京城区夏季单次极端高温过程的强度及其空间分布具有显著影响,在很大程度上加重了城区特别是中心城区的高温影响。     

Radiative Exchange in an Urban Street Canyon

The influence of building geometry on the radiation terms ofthe surface energy balance is a principal reason for surfacetemperature differences between rural and urban areas.Methods exist to calculate the radiation balance in an urban area,but their validity across the range of urban geometries andmaterials has not been carefully considered.Here the exchange of diffuse radiation in an urban street canyon isinvestigated using a method incorporating all reflections of radiation.This exact solution is compared to two commonly used approximationsthat retain either no reflections, or just one reflection of radiation.The area-averaged net radiative flux density from the facets of the canyondecreases in magnitude monotonically as the canyon aspect ratio increases.The two approximate solutions possess unphysical differences from thismonotonic decrease for high canyon aspect ratios or low materialemissivities/high material albedos.The errors of the two approximate solutions are small for near blackbodymaterials and small canyon aspect ratios but can be an order ofmagnitude for intermediate material properties and deep street canyons.Urban street canyon models need to consider at least one reflectionof radiation and multiple reflections are desirable for full applicability.     

Evaluation of the Urban Tile in MOSES using Surface Energy Balance Observations

The UK Met Office has introduced a new scheme for its urban tile in MOSES 2.2 (Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme version 2.2), which is currently implemented within the operational Met Office weather forecasting model. Here, the performance of the urban tile is evaluated in two urban areas: the historic core of downtown Mexico City and a light industrial site in Vancouver, Canada. The sites differ in terms of building structures and mean building heights. In both cases vegetation cover is less than 5%. The evaluation is based on surface energy balance flux measurements conducted at approximately the blending height, which is the location where the surface scheme passes flux data into the atmospheric model. At both sites, MOSES 2.2 correctly simulates the net radiation, but there are discrepancies in the partitioning of turbulent and storage heat fluxes between predicted and observed values. Of the turbulent fluxes, latent heat fluxes were underpredicted by about one order of magnitude. Multiple model runs revealed MOSES 2.2 to be sensitive to changes in the canopy heat storage and in the ratio between the aerodynamic roughness length and that for heat transfer (temperature). Model performance was optimum with heat capacity values smaller than those generally considered for these sites. The results suggest that the current scheme is probably too simple, and that improvements may be obtained by increasing the complexity of the model.     

春节人口迁移的气候效应:以郑州为例

目前,我们对人类活动通过温室气体、气溶胶和土地利用对气候产生重要影响已经获得了很多认识。但是,人口迁移流动在多大程度上能够影响气候尚不清楚。中国春节期间的人口大迁移是世界上每年最大规模的人类迁徙。利用城市站和参考站的气温差表示城市热岛强度,以一个典型中国中部大城市—郑州为例,研究了春节人口大迁移对城市热岛效应的影响。结果表明,2005~2013年平均的春节周日平均、日最高和日最低温度郑州站与中牟站的差分别为0.16°C、0.29°C和-0.03°C,比春节周前2~4周和春节周后2~4周的平均值低了0.50°C、0.06°C和0.66°C。相对变化而言,日平均、日最高和日最低温度的差分别降低了76%、16%和105%。春节周日平均和日最低温度的差的变化都通过了99%的信度检验。     

重庆市城市热岛研究的现状需求和建议

分析了重庆市为创建国家生态园林城市而产生对城市热岛评估和研究的需求、城市热岛研究现状以及面临的一些问题,设计了面向创建国家生态园林城市的城市热岛研究方案,总结了城市热岛的基本规律。提出了以下研究城市热岛的建议以满足创建国家生态园林城市的需求和调控城市热岛:根据国家生态园林城市的评价标准研究得出权威的、准确的城市热岛现状评价结果;通过高分辨率数值模式开展模拟实验研究,明确山脉、江河等特殊地理环境在创建国家生态园林城市中的利、弊作用;保护利用河谷风和山谷风,加强城区自然通风,以调控城市热岛。     

城市区域南北朝向室内表面温度特征

使用12月、4月、8月昆明城市区建筑物室内小气候的观测资料,分析了室内不同方位的墙体表面温度的特征、变化规律及差异。结果表明：南北朝向房屋不同内壁表面温度存在显著的时间和季节变化,4月和8月内壁表面温度较高,12月较低;12月室内表面温度变化受房屋朝向影响十分显著,4月和8月影响较小;南屋12月夜间S壁表面温度最大,昼间E壁最小;4月和8月则反之,夜间E壁表面温度最大,昼间S壁最小;北屋3个月份内夜间E壁表面温度均最大,昼间N壁最小。以上所得结果可为探讨房屋微气候特征和形成机制、原因,建筑物的合理设计和规划,以及改善人们居住环境的深入研究提供依据,并且为其它地区的相关研究提供参考。     

Episodic Performance and Sensitivity of the Urbanized MM5 (uMM5) to Perturbations in Surface Properties in Houston Texas

We present an application of a fine-resolution, meso-urban meteorological model (urbanized MM5; uMM5) to a multi-day episode in August 2000 in the Houston-Galveston Texas, USA region. The model’s episodic performance and its response to small changes in land-cover and surface physical properties in the area, e.g., scenarios of urban heat island mitigation, are evaluated. The model formulation is reviewed along with its parameterizations, data needs, and fine-resolution geometrical input. Development of scenarios of increased urban albedo and vegetative cover is also discussed. This initial application of the uMM5 to the Houston-Galveston region serves as a basis for future model improvements, evaluation of newer data and parameterization applications, testing more aggressive surface modification scenarios, and performing fine-resolution photochemical modelling. It also provides data for comparison of model results with those from previous studies of this region.