Crystallographic control on the development of foam textures in quartz, plagioclase and analogue material

The shape, pattern and crystallographic orientation of grain boundaries represent important characteristics of crystalline material and contain information about its deformation and annealing history. The present study includes measurements of grain boundaries from experimentally annealed analogue material as well as natural foam texture of quartz and plagioclase. The main subject is the relation between the development of a foam texture and the crystallographic orientation of its grain boundaries and their geometry. (1) During annealing, grain sizes stabilize at certain values. On a statistical basis, these values can be applied as a geothermometer. (2) On the light-microscope scale, the grain boundaries in foam textures commonly consist of two or several planar facets. They are preferentially oriented along specific crystallographic planes, namely in relation to both neighbouring crystals; for quartz they tend to be rhombohedral. (3) Even highly misoriented facets and dihedral angles largely deviating from the 'equilibrium angle' of 120° may be stable over long periods of annealing. (4) Parts of single boundaries may migrate, whereas other parts are stationary during annealing. The results of the present study suggest that the anisotropy of surface energy has a considerable influence on the development of foam textures and that modelling of texture development should include the influence of the crystallographic orientation of grain boundaries.     

Crystal Size Distribution (CSD) and Textural Evolution of Accessory Apatite, Titanite and Allanite during Four Stages of Metamorphism: an Example from the Moine Supergroup, Scotland

Crystal size distributions (CSD) and shapes of accessory apatite,titanite and allanite are investigated in three texturally distinctgarnet zones (Z1–Z3) and in the matrix (Z4) of a garnet–epidote–biotitegneiss from the Moine Supergroup. Additionally, textural relationshipsand interactions between the accessory minerals and surroundingrock-forming minerals are considered, results of numerical CSDmodelling are presented, and geochronological and geologicalconsequences of the inferred CSD evolutions are discussed. Texturesand CSDs indicate that the accessory minerals were in, or near,a stage of nucleation and initial growth immediately prior togarnet Z1 overgrowth, and formed within less than 20 000 years,either by a size-independent or size-dependent growth mechanism.Subsequently, the CSDs were modified by different growth mechanisms,as supported by several parameters including CSDs, grain numbers,grain sizes, specific volumes and others. The apatite CSD evolutionfrom Z1 to Z4 is consistent with open-system LPE (Law of ProportionateEffects) growth accompanied and followed by supply controlledrandom ripening, whereas transformation of the original titaniteCSD is more consistent with Ostwald ripening, temporarily accompaniedby positive or negative McCabe growth. The allanite CSDs alsopoint to Ostwald ripening between Z3 and Z4. The textural observationsindicate that the growth evolution of the accessory phases wasinfluenced by mineral reactions with surrounding rock-formingminerals, as well as by deformation and matrix coarsening, ina manner similar to that found in more simple ceramic systems.The observed textures require a successive temperature risethroughout the tectono-metamorphic evolution of the investigatedrock, in agreement with existing P–T data. Fast nucleationand initial growth of the accessory minerals during Z1 was perhapsinitiated by contact metamorphism, whereas subsequent growthand annealing (Z2–Z4) result from regional metamorphicevents. KEY WORDS: apatite; titanite; allanite; CSD; Moine Supergroup; textures; kinetics     

Pyrite deformation in stratiform lead-zinc deposits of the Canadian Cordillera

Pyrite textures in five stratiform lead-zinc deposits from lower to upper greenschist facies environment of the Canadian Cordillera are described and discussed in terms of deposition/early diagenesis, deformation, metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration processes. Overgrowth is an important process during both diagenesis and deformation. Diagenetic and deformational overgrowths can be distinguished. Diffusive mass transfer, involving pressure solution and oriented overgrowth of pyrite is the main deformation mechanism in pyrite deposits at low metamorphic grades. Although diffusive mass transfer favours fine-grained mineral aggregates, its effect on coarse pyrite grains has also been identified. Ore minerals dissolved by pressure solution may be transported, with the assistance of pore fluids within fractures and grain boundaries, over distances significantly greater than the scale of individual grains to give a range of pressure solution/overgrowth textures. The textural modification of pyritic ores from the early stages of diagnesis, through metamorphism and deformation, to post deformation thermal annealing, has important implications for the distribution of trace elements and isotopic compositions in pyritic ores.     

Effects of annealing on deformation textures in galena

Experimental annealing of galena samples with known deformation histories shows that this mineral has the necessary properties to be a valuable source of information about low-grade deformational environments. Annealed galena displays recovery and/or recrystallization features dependent upon the type of texture inherited from the tectonic event, which in turn is closely linked to deformation temperatures.In samples deformed at temperatures less than 200 ° C in the laboratory, later annealing produced subgrains, mosaics of new grains, or rapid grain boundary migration as the annealing temperatures were varied from 200 ° C to 700 ° C. Kink bands maintained characteristic straight simple boundaries inherited from the deformation event. Samples deformed above 300 ° C developed syntectonically recrystallized textures. Kink bands had been converted to elongate grains with complex sutured grain boundaries during deformation, and mosaics of new grains were found in highly deformed regions. These textures were extremely stable through later annealing. Despite our changing annealing temperatures through 500 ° C, we did not produce similar textures from both low and high temperature deformation runs.Examination of polished and etched galena from low-grade tectonic settings may well be worth the effort since galena textures appear to display features indicative of deformational evironments, even after being subjected to considerable post-tectonic thermal perturbations.     

粒度与岩石流变相关性研究进展

粒度对岩石的粘度、应变率和流变机制及转换具有重要的影响。在相同条件下,粒度越大,粘度越高。在粒度灵敏性变形中,粒度的变化有时对岩石应变率的影响也是显著的。大部分天然岩石是由不同粒度的矿物颗粒组成,不同粒度的颗粒在变形中可能受不同的变形机制控制,包含粒度分布参数的复合流动律改进了人们对天然岩石流变性的认识。岩石的变形过程同时也是粒度的不断修正过程,粒度的演化具有稳态化的趋势。     

Fluid inclusion study of the Fiumarella barite deposit (Catanzaro — S. Italy)

Samples from a barite vein deposit, located in the Catanzaro Fiumarella (Calabria) were examined by fluid inclusion and ore minerographic techniques. The barite vein occur in plutonic rocks of the Stilo Unit, where some Mo mineralizations were reported. The purpose of the study was to determine the characteristics of the fluid inclusions and to compare them to those of typical porphyry Cu/Mo systems. The ore minerographic study shows that the sulfides, associated to the barite, are clearly post-barite. The fluid inclusion results indicate that the average minimum temperature of the barite formation can be assumed to be about 210°C, with a range of 190–235°C. The salinity of the barite forming solutions is in the range 0–19.5 wt% NaCl and the average minimum pressure on the system was of 18.04 bars equivalent to a minimum depth of 201 m of barite formation below the paleowatertable. No genetic link is suggested to exist between the fluid inclusions of the Fiumarella barite deposit and those characteristic of typical porphyry Cu/Mo systems, whereas a close relation with epithermal precious metal (with base metals) vein deposits or with their distant cousins, the Kuroko deposits, is suggested to exist.Work carried out with the financial assistance of the "Progetto Finalizzato Geodinamica" (n^o 79.00597.89.115.6291). Publ. n^o 353     

Effects of greenschist-facies metamorphism and related deformation on the Mobrun massive sulfide deposit,Québec,Canada

The Mobrun Zn-Cu-Ag-Au deposit in the Noranda mining camp is hosted by Archean mafic and felsic submarine volcanic rocks. The deposit comprises three massive sulfide complexes: the Main and Satellite Lenses near surface, and the 1100 orebody at depth. The rocks have been subjected to lower greenschist-facies metamorphism and related deformation, which resulted in changes in ore textures, development of shear zones and veins systems, remobilization of gold, and formation of a new mineral (electrum) within the orebodies. Both mechanical and chemical processes operated to produce secondary textures and structures resulting from brittle deformation, ductile deformation, and annealing. The specific deformation mechanisms include brittle failure and cataclastic flow, dislocation glide, dislocation creep and solution-precipitation creep. The Main and Satellite Lenses are characterized by excellent preservation of primary sulfides deposited from and reworked by synvolcanic hydrothermal fluids. These orebodies were affected to a limited degree by mechanical processes of deformation. In contrast, the 1100 orebody is characterized by a higher degree of development of textures and structures related to metamorphism and deformation, especially those formed by chemical processes. The differences may be due to the greater depth of the 1100 orebody relative to the other lenses, as regional metamorphic isograds are subhorizontal, and more extensive interaction between metamorphic fluids and the 1100 Lens.     

粤北金鸡岭丹霞群砂岩矿物表面结构初步研究

本文对丹霞群砂岩中的石英、长石、电气石、锆石４种碎屑矿物的表面结构特征作了初步研究，并与现代河流和海岸砂质沉积物中的同类矿物的表面结构特征进行类比。文章指出，由于成岩作用的影响，古代砂岩中的碎屑矿物比现代砂的同类矿物具有更为复杂的表面结构，原因在于成岩环境下，溶解、溶蚀和压溶作用对古代砂岩的矿物表面有更深刻的改造。     

Textural relations in melanosomes of selected specimens of migmatitic pelitic schists: Implications for leucosome-generating processes

Melanosome textures in several specimens of migmatitic pelitic schists are evaluated to test leucosome-generating reactions inferred independently on the basis of mineralogic and chemical relationships in the melanosomes. Systematic variations in grain numbers per unit volume, grain sizes, size distributions, and shapes, and grain contact frequencies within melanosomes can be attributed to leucosome generation. These variations support independent inferences of reactions based on modes and chemistry and, in one case, suggest a refinement of reactions inferred on these bases.In these specimens, at least, textures resulting from the leucosome-generating process have not been obliterated by later recrystallization and provide information regarding this process. These textures indicate that leucosome generation involved preferential reaction at mice-quartz and feldspar-quartz grain boundaries. This conclusion is in agreement with melting processes observed in short-term melting experiments.     

铜陵朝山金矿床矿石特征与金的赋存状态研究

朝山金矿的主要矿石类型为含金硫铁矿石,矿石中富含铋矿物,且作为主要载金矿物,是该矿床的标型特征和重要找矿标志.矿石多呈结晶粒状结构、各种充填-交代结构,块状、浸染状、细脉状构造.金矿物以形态复杂的微粒、细粒自然金、银金矿、金银矿为主,赋存形式有晶隙金、包体金、连生金、裂隙金,载金矿物为石英、自然铋、辉铋矿、磁黄铁矿、黄铁矿、黄铜矿、毒砂等.综合分析认为:该矿床是典型的夕卡岩型独立金矿,成矿流体的不混溶是金富集成矿的主因.     

The effect of pre‐tectonic reaction and annealing extent on behaviour during subsequent deformation: insights from paired shear zones in the lower crust of Fiordland,New Zealand

Granulite facies pargasite orthogneiss is partially to completely reacted to garnet granulite either side of narrow (<20 mm) felsic dykes, in Fiordland, New Zealand, forming ~10–80 mm wide garnet reaction zones. The metamorphic reaction changed the abundance of minerals, and their shape and grain size distribution. The extent of reaction and annealing (temperature‐related coarsening and nucleation) is greatest close to the dykes, whereas further away the reaction is incomplete. As a consequence, grain size and the abundance of garnet decreases away from the felsic dykes over a few centimetres. The aspect ratios of clusters of S1 pyroxene and pargasite in the orthogneiss, which are variably reacted to post‐S1 garnet, decrease from high in the host, to near equidimensional close to the dyke. Post‐reaction deformation localized in the fine‐grained partially reacted areas. This produced a pattern of ‘paired’ shear zones located at the outer parts of the garnet reaction zone. Our study shows that grain size sensitive deformation occurs where the grain size is sufficiently reduced by metamorphic reaction. The weakening of the rock due to the change in grain size distribution outweighs the addition of nominally stronger garnet to the assemblage.     

Post-deformational annealing of calcite rocks

The evolution of microstructure and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) during post-deformational annealing was studied on three calcite rock types differing in purity and grain size: Carrara marble (98% calcite, mean grain size of 115 μm), Solnhofen limestone (96%, 5 μm) and synthetic calcite aggregates (99%, 7 μm). Samples were first deformed in torsion at 727 °C at a shear strain rate of 3 × 10^{− 4} s^{− 1} to a shear strain of 5 and subsequently heat-treated at 727 °C for various durations between 0 and 24 h. Microstructures and CPOs were analysed by optical microscopy, image analysis and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD).All rock types deformed in the dislocation creep field at the same applied conditions, but their microstructures and CPOs after deformation and after annealing differed depending on starting grain size and material composition. In Carrara marble and in the synthetic calcite aggregate, a strong CPO developed during deformation accompanied by dynamic recrystallisation with significant changes in grain size. During annealing, widespread grain growth and subtle changes of CPO occurred, and equilibrated foam microstructures were approached after long annealing times. The CPO is the only feature in annealed samples indicating an earlier deformation phase, although it is not always identical to the CPO formed during deformation. In the more impure Solnhofen limestone, secondary phases on grain boundaries suppressed grain boundary mobility and prevented both the formation of a recrystallisation CPO during deformation and grain size modification during deformation and annealing.     

海南王下牙老金矿床矿石特征

王下牙老金矿为贫硫化物方解石-石英脉型金矿床,矿体严格受断裂裂隙控制.矿石的有用组分单一,有害杂质少,金矿物主要为自然金.主要的金属矿物为毒砂、黄铁矿,同时也是主要的载金矿物;非金属矿物为石英、碳酸盐矿物.矿石多具自形、半自形、他形粒状结构,以脉状、浸染状构造为主.自然金形态为角粒状、长角粒状,赋存状态以粒间金为主,其次为包裹金,裂隙金仅占8.2%,自然金为显微金.矿石类型以含金方解石-石英复合脉为主,其次为含金构造角砾岩型和含金蚀变岩型.     

大平沟金矿床矿石特征与金的赋存状态

大平沟金矿床是受韧性剪切带控制的中温动力变质热液矿床，金矿石主要为蚀变糜棱岩型，夹少量钾长石石英脉型，矿石结构有变晶结构、交代－充填结晶结构两主要类型，矿石构造以块状构造、团块状构造、细脉状构造和浸染状构造为主。金呈独立金矿物（主要为自然金）出现，以包体金、裂隙金、连生金和粒间金等形式嵌布于黄铁矿、黄铜矿、石英、钾长石及方解石等主要载金矿和中，金矿物形态多样，粒度以中细粒为主。上述特点与我国东部地区产于太古变质岩（绿岩带）中的金矿床具有可对比性，也与矿床成因研究的认识相吻合。     

Numerical simulations of microstructures using the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elle</Emphasis> platform: A modern research and teaching tool

The last 20 years have seen a manifold increase in the application of numerical simulations in the earth sciences. This contribution aims to provide an overview of the possibilities of using numerical techniques, in particular the numerical simulation package Elle, as an aid in the training for microstructural interpretation in rocks. Three sets of experiments are described to illustrate the range of simulations currently possible, investigating the effects of grain growth, polyphase deformation and dynamic recrystallisation. Numerical simulations of static annealing of a pre-deformed natural sample show that Crystallographic Preferred Orientations can still be used for the interpretation of kinematic and deformation conditions, even after substantial postdeformational annealing. However, the grain network characteristics such as grain size, grain size distribution, boundary shapes and aspect ratios are rapidly altered during annealing, especially if the grains possessed highly contrasting internal strain energies.     

Microstructures of deformed grains in the augen gneisses of southern Menderes Massif (western Turkey) and their tectonic significance

A detailed fabric and microstructural analysis of the granitic mylonites was carried out on the southern side of Bes,parmak Mountain north of Selimiye (Milas). The mylonitic augen gneisses have?a blastomylonitic texture characterized by large retort-shape porphyroclasts or augen of feldspars, around which a more ductile, medium to fine-grained matrix of muscovite, biotite, quartz and feldspar is deflected. Feldspars behave in both plastic and brittle fashion, because size reduction occurs through grain boundary migration and/or subgrain rotation, and also through fracturing. Typical “core-and-mantle” structure, characterized by a large feldspar core surrounded by a mantle of fine recrystallized grains, is very characteristic. The majority of plagioclase twins obey the albite-twin law; however, the association with pericline-law twinning suggests that many of the twins are mechanical. Evidence of strain, such as deformation twins, bent or curved twins, undulatory extinction, deformation bands and kink bands occur characteristically in plagioclase. Myrmekite is ubiquitous at K-feldspar grain boundaries, most notably on the long sides of inequant grains parallel to the S-foliation direction, which invariably face the maximum finite shortening direction. Deformation of quartz in mylonitic augen gneisses commonly results in the development of core-and-mantle structure and “type-4” quartz ribbons of elongated, preferably oriented, newly recrystallized quartz aggregates suggesting a primary dynamic recrystallization. Undulatory extinction, deformation bands and lamellae are the strain-related features associated with quartz porphyroclasts. Micas, especially biotite, undergo internal deformation by bend gliding and kinking. Most of the micas are completely attenuated and aligned such that their (001) planes are subparallel or parallel to the margins of quartz ribbons and define the foliation in the rock. These microstructures of feldspars, quartz and mica in the mylonitic augen gneisses in this part of the southern Menderes Massif are broadly consistent with fabric development under upper-greenschist- to lower-amphibolite-facies conditions, rather than almandine–amphibolite facies, as was previously believed. This supports the previous contention of the authors that the protoliths of augen gneisses are younger granitoids and do not represent an exposed Precambrian Pan-African basement in the Menderes Massif.     

Schlieren formation in diatexite migmatite: examples from the St Malo migmatite terrane, France

Schlieren are trains of platy or blocky minerals, typically the ferromagnesian minerals and accessory phases, that occur in granites and melt‐rich migmatites, such as diatexites. They have been considered as: (1) unmelted residue from xenoliths or the source region; (2) mineral accumulations formed during magma flow; (3) compositional layering; and (4) sites of melt loss. In order to help identify schlieren‐forming processes in the diatexites at St Malo, differences in the size, shape, orientation, distribution and composition of the biotite from schlieren and from their hosts have been investigated. Small biotite grains are much less abundant in the schlieren than in their hosts. Schlieren biotite grains are generally larger, have greater aspect ratios and have, except in hosts with low (< 10%) biotite contents, a much stronger shape preferred orientation than host biotite. The compositional ranges of host and schlieren biotite are similar, but schlieren biotite defines tighter, sharper peaks on composition‐frequency plots. Hosts show magmatic textures such as imbricated (tiled), unstrained plagioclase. Some schlieren show only magmatic textures (tiled biotite, no crystal‐plastic strain features), but many have textures indicating submagmatic and subsolidus deformation (e.g. kinked grains) and these schlieren show the most extensive evidence for recrystallization. Magmas at St Malo initially contained a significant fraction of residual biotite and plagioclase crystals; smaller biotite grains were separated from the larger plagioclase crystals during magma flow. Since plagioclase was also the major, early crystallizing phase, the plagioclase‐rich domains developed rapidly and reached the rigid percolation threshold first, forcing further magma flow to be concentrated into narrowing melt‐rich zones where the biotite had accumulated, hence increasing shear strain and the degree of shape preferred orientation in these domains. Schlieren formed in these domains as a result of grain contacts and tiling in the grain inertia‐regime. Final amalgamation of the biotite aggregates into schlieren involved volume loss as melt trapped between grains was expelled after the rigid percolation threshold was reached in the biotite‐rich layers.     

Grain-size sensitive deformation of a stretched conglomerate from Plymouth, Vermont

The finite strain of clasts (maximum aspect ratio varying from 2 to 40) in a deformed conglomerate from Dry Hill, Plymouth, Vermont, correlates inversely with the average grain size (300-150 μm) in the clast, suggesting that the operative deformation mechanism was grain-size sensitive. In a general way, the average quartz grain size appeared to be smaller in those clasts with higher volume of minerals other than quartz. Dislocation densities varied by as much as a factor of 10 from grain to grain within a clast, but the average dislocation density was relatively constant from clast to clast. If grain-size sensitivity of strength is accepted as a working hypothesis, other elements of the microstructure, such as grain flattening, grain morphology, and dislocation structure can be reconciled as happening either through a late, low strain, high stress pulse—if the current palaeostress indicators are correct to within a factor of 10 or as happening concurrently with the grain-size sensitive mechanism if the current palaeostress estimates are in error. The evidence from this study agrees with several previously published suggestions that grain-size sensitive deformation occurs in the crust for quartzose rocks with grain size of 100 to 300 μm at temperatures of 350 to 420°C.     

Texture development of recrystallised quartz polycrystals unravelled by orientation and misorientation characteristics

The development of microstructures and textures (i.e. crystallographic preferred orientations) during recrystallisation of naturally deformed quartz polycrystals has been studied via electron diffraction techniques in the scanning electron microscope. In the investigated sample series of quartz-rich rocks originating from different deformation regimes, the microstructural and textural changes in quartz have been significantly influenced by dynamic recrystallisation. Based on microstructural observations paired with orientation and misorientation analyses down to the scale of grains and subgrains, criteria could be established which characterise the dominant recrystallisation process and its influence on texture development. It is shown that the texture development during dynamic recrystallisation is controlled by a differential activation of slip systems in grains of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ orientations. The analyses provide further evidence that specific grain orientations are preferred during crystal plastic deformation, recrystallisation and grain growth. The influence of twinning after the Dauphiné law was also investigated. Observations of a progressive reduction in the population of Dauphiné-twin boundaries during recrystallisation and a penetrative deformation in both hosts and twins indicate a generation prior to deformation and recrystallisation. A mechanical origin for twinning and possible influence on texture development was therefore discarded.     

Retrogressive Microstructures of the Eclogites from the Northern Dabie Mountains, Central China： Evidence for Rapid Exhumation

The ultrahigh-pressure eclogites from the northern Dabie Mountains in central China occurred as tectonic lens or blocks within granitic gneisses or meta-peridotites. Petrologic studies suggest that the studied eclogites experienced strongly retrogressive metamorphism and produced a series of characteristic retrogressive microstructures. The retrograde structures mainly include: (1) oriented needle mineral exsolution, e. g. , quartz needles in Na-clinopyroxene and rotile, clinopyroxene and apatite exsolution in garnet formed under decreasing pressure conditions during exhumation; (2) symplectite, especially, two generations of symplectites developed outside the garnet grains, which are called ““double symplectite““ here; (3) compositional zoning of minerals such as garnet and clinopyroxene; (4) minerals with a reaction rim or retrograde rim, e.g. , omphacite with a diopside rim, diopside with an amphibole rim and rutile with a rim of ilmenite. These retrograde textures, especially mineral zoning and symplectite, provide important petrologic evidence for the exhumation process and uplift of high-grade metamorphic rocks such as eclogite in the northern Dabie Mountains, indicating a rapid exhumation process.