Capacity evaluation of statnamic tested long piles

A procedure that uses the structural damping (SD) concept for estimating the capacity of a pile based on the Statnamic (STN) pile load test results, formerly used by the authors for short piles, is extended in this paper for the STN tested long piles. Similar to segmental unloading point method procedures for long piles, the shaft length is divided into several segments and each segment is assumed to behave as a mass of a single degree of freedom. The SD concept is then applied to each segment to consider the displacement related soil damping instead of the velocity dependent damping. Instrumented strain gauge data at different levels of the shaft are required for the interpretation method. Three case studies are presented in this paper to study the validity and applicability of the present method. The predicted results are also compared to the available test or analytical data.     

Modelling of raked pile foundations in liquefiable ground

Raked piles are believed to behave better than vertical piles in a laterally flowing liquefied ground. This paper aims at numerically simulating the response of raked pile foundations in liquefying ground through nonlinear finite element analysis. For this purpose, the OpenSees computer package was used. A range of sources have been adopted in the definition of model components whose validity is assessed against case studies presented in literature. Experimental and analytical data confirmed that the backbone force density–displacement (p–y) curve simulating lateral pile response is of acceptable credibility for both vertical and raked piles. A parametric investigation on fixed-head piles subject to lateral spreading concluded that piles exhibiting positive inclination impart lower moment demands at the head while those inclined negatively perform better at liquefaction boundaries (relative to vertical piles). Further studies reveal substantial axial demand imposed upon negatively inclined members due to the transfer of gravity and ground-induced lateral forces axially down the pile. Extra care must be taken in the design of such members in soils susceptible to lateral spreading such that compressive failure (i.e. pile buckling) is avoided.     

Quasi-3D analysis: Validation by full 3D analysis and field tests on single piles and pile groups

A quasi-3D method for the analysis of single piles and pile groups is presented. The method includes an equivalent linear constitutive model for nonlinear analysis, an 8-node pile element that simulates the effects of pile volume and energy transmitting boundaries which are especially important for the analysis of high frequency loading of machine foundations. The quasi-3D formulation and equivalent linear model result in orders of magnitude decreases in computational time. The accuracy and reliability of the approximate approach was validated by comparing results with 3D analytical results from MIT and by data from field tests on single piles and pile groups from Taiwan. The computed results compared very favorably with the analytical and field test data.     

Kinematic interaction factors of deep foundations with inclined piles

The beneficial or detrimental role of battered piles on the dynamic response of piled foundations has not been yet fully elucidated. In order to shed more light on this aspect, kinematic interaction factors of deep foundations with inclined piles, are provided for single‐battered piles, as well as for 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 groups of piles subjected to vertically incident plane shear S waves. Piles are modelled as linear‐elastic Bernoulli beams, whereas soil is assumed to be a linear, isotropic, homogeneous viscoelastic half‐space. Different pile group configurations, pile‐soil stiffness ratios, and rake angles are considered. The relevance and main trends observed in the influence of the rake angle on the kinematic interaction factors of the analysed foundations are inferred from the presented results. An important dependence of the kinematic interaction factors on the rake angle is observed together with the existence of an inclination angle at which cap rotation and excitation become out of phase in the low‐to‐mid frequency range. The existence of a small batter angle that provides minimum cap rotation is also shown. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamic stiffness of deep foundations with inclined piles

The influence of inclined piles on the dynamic response of deep foundations and superstructures is still not well understood and needs further research. For this reason, impedance functions of deep foundations with inclined piles, obtained numerically from a boundary element–finite element coupling model, are provided in this paper. More precisely, vertical, horizontal, rocking and horizontal–rocking crossed dynamic stiffness and damping functions of single inclined piles and 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 pile groups with battered elements are presented in a set of plots. The soil is assumed to be a homogeneous viscoelastic isotropic half‐space and the piles are modeled as elastic compressible Euler–Bernoulli beams. The results for different pile group configurations, pile–soil stiffness ratios and rake angles are presented. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental investigation on seismic behavior of single piles in sandy soil

This paper describes a quasi-static test program featuring lateral cyclic loading on single piles in sandy soil. The tests were conducted on 18 aluminum model piles with different cross sections and lateral load eccentricity ratios, e/d, (e is the lateral load eccentricity and d is the diameter of pile) of 0, 4 and 8, embedded in sand with a relative density of 30% and 70%. The experimental results include lateral load-displacement hysteresis loops, skeleton curves and energy dissipation curves. Lateral capacity, ductility and energy dissipation capacity of single piles under seismic load were evaluated in detail. The lateral capacities and the energy dissipation capacity of piles in dense sand were much higher than in loose sand. When embedded in loose sand, the maximum lateral load and the maximum lateral displacement of piles increased as e/d increased. On the contrary, when embedded in dense sand, the maximum lateral load of piles decreased as e/d increased. Piles with a higher load eccentricity ratio experienced higher energy dissipation capacity than piles with e/d of 0 in both dense and loose sand. At a given level of displacement, piles with circular cross sections provided the best energy dissipation capacity in both loose and dense sand.     

Numerical analysis of nonlinear soil–pile group interaction under lateral loads

A nonlinear p–y element was provided which can simply model the behavior of a pile group foundation subjected to lateral loading. Its elasto-plastic side soil is expressed as a Winkler-type distributed model. Despite the simplification involved in modeling such a complex phenomenon the proposed nonlinear soil model can reproduce the system behavior as computed by more rigorous 3D finite element methods. The numerical results are also compared with those from available physical model data to confirm that our simulations can predict the behavior of pile groups with good accuracy.     

Experimental investigation on seismic behavior of single piles in sandy soil

This paper describes a quasi-static test program featuring lateral cyclic loading on single piles in sandy soil. The tests were conducted on 18 aluminum model piles with different cross sections and lateral load eccentricity ratios, e/d, (e is the lateral load eccentricity and d is the diameter of pile) of 0, 4 and 8, embedded in sand with a relative density of 30% and 70%. The experimental results include lateral load-displacement hysteresis loops, skeleton curves and energy dissipation curves. Lateral cap...     

Single beam analogy for describing soil–pile group interaction

Most laterally loaded piles are flexible in the sense that they are not deformed over their entire lengths. Instead, pile deflections become negligible below an ‘active pile length’ L_a. This L_a is an important parameter that governs the overall behavior of a rigidly capped pile group. In the present approach, piles closely grouped together beneath a superstructure are viewed as a single equivalent upright beam whose stiffness matrix determines L_a. This idea is verified for different cases of pile spacing, and is further extended for nonlinear behavior of soils surrounding grouped piles.     

水平荷载作用下PCC桩群桩效应数值分析

采用三维弹塑性有限元方法,研究了PCC桩群桩在水平荷载作用下的工作性状。比较了PCC桩群桩和等截面实心圆形桩群桩的水平承载力和群桩效率,得到了PCC桩纵、横向群桩效应的临界桩距;分析了桩距、桩数、桩顶约束条件对PCC桩群桩效率的影响。研究表明,PCC单桩和群桩的水平承载力都较等截面实心圆桩大;PCC桩纵、横向群桩效应的临界桩距分别约为外径的7.4倍和2.8倍;桩距愈小、桩数愈多,PCC桩群桩效率愈小,当设计桩距小于临界桩距时,应考虑群桩效应;PCC桩桩顶固接或铰接时,弯矩分布和承载力差异较大,设计中可以通过改变桩顶的约束条件来协调桩身受力性状。     

Static equivalent method for the kinematic interaction analysis of single piles

This paper presents a static equivalent approach to estimate the maximum kinematic interaction effects on piles subjected to lateral seismic excitation. Closed-form expressions are reported for the evaluation of the maximum free-field soil movements and for the computation of maximum pile shear force and bending moments. Firstly, modal analysis, combined with a suitable damped response spectrum, is used to evaluate the maximum free-field response. Secondly, the pile is schematised as a Winkler's beam subjected to equivalent static forces defined according to soil vibration modal shapes and amplitude. The method may be applied by using response spectra suggested by National Standards or those obtained with accelerograms. The procedure proposed may be conveniently implemented in simple spreadsheets or in commercial finite element programs and easily used by practicing engineers. Method accuracy is demonstrated by comparing the results with those obtained with a more rigorous model. Good results may be achieved by considering only the first soil vibration mode making the procedure straightforward for practical design purposes.     

Interactive behavior of soil–pile-superstructure system in transient state to liquefaction by means of large shake table tests

Shaking table tests were conducted by means of a large-scale laminar box with 4 m in length, 2 m in width and 2 m in height in order to investigate behavior of a soil-pile-superstructure system in liquefiable ground. A model two-storey structure, supported by a pile group, was set in a saturated sand deposit, and subjected to a sinusoidal base motion with increasing amplitude. Discussions are focused on the transient behavior until soil liquefaction occurs. Main interests are characteristics of springs used in a sway-rocking model and a multi-freedom lumped mass (MFLM) model that are frequently used in soil–pile interaction analysis. The spring constant in the sway-rocking model is represented by restoring force characteristics at the pile head, and that in the MFLM system is represented by an interaction spring connecting the pile to the free field. The transient state prior to soil liquefaction is shown to be important in the design of a pile because dynamic earth pressure shows peak response in this state. The reduction of the stiffness due to excess porewater generation and strain dependent nonlinear behavior is evaluated.     

Centrifuge modelling of flexible retaining walls subjected to dynamic loading

This paper outlines the results of an experimental program carried out on centrifuge models of cantilevered and propped retaining walls embedded in saturated sand. The main aim of the paper is to investigate the dynamic response of these structures when the foundation soil is saturated by measuring the accelerations and pore pressures in the soil, displacements and bending moment of the walls. A comparison among tests with different geometrical configurations and relative density of the soil is presented. The centrifuge models were subjected to dynamic loading in the form of sinusoidal accelerations applied at the base of the models. This paper also presents data from pressure sensors used to measure total earth pressure on the walls. Furthermore, these results are compared with previous dynamic centrifuge tests on flexible retaining walls in dry sand.     

Centrifuge modelling of structures with oil dampers under seismic loading

Experimental research into the seismic performance of buildings with passive oil dampers has so far been restricted to large-scale testing of frames erected on laboratory shaking tables that ignore the foundation soil below. This simplification of the problem falls short of replicating dynamic soil-structure interaction that would occur in the field. This paper presents the first experimental attempt at utilising high gravity dynamic centrifuge testing to replicate the response of a damped building at a reduced model scale. The paper compares the dynamic response of two similar two-degree-of-freedom model sway frames, one control (bare) frame and one frame equipped with miniature oil dampers, both structures founded on shallow raft foundations in dry dense sand. The miniature oil dampers successfully mitigate floor accelerations, drifts, and storey shear forces in the damped frame with minor modification to the frame stiffness. For strong, near resonance motions, global rocking of the undamped frame associated with physical uplifting of the foundation from the soil surface and subsequent yielding of sand beneath has led to floor acceleration levels, which are comparable to those obtained in the damped building fitted with miniature oil dampers. Assessment of the instrumentation installed on the miniature oil dampers reveals a viscoelastic damper behaviour with a dependency on stroke magnitude and on velocity.     

Time domain dynamic analysis of piles under impact loading

In this paper, time domain dynamic analysis of piles under impact loading is presented. For this purpose a hybrid boundary element technique is implemented. Linear beam column finite elements are used to model the piles and resulting governing equations are solved using an implicit integration scheme. The continuum is assumed to be elastic and an efficient step-by-step time integration scheme is implemented by using an approximate half space integral formulation. By enforcing displacement equilibrium conditions at each time step, a system of equations is generated which yields the solution. Results of this time domain formulation under linear material behavior are compared with Laplace domain results to validate the methods.     

Centrifuge modelling for evaluation of seismic behaviour of stone masonry structure

Many surviving ancient monuments are freestanding stone masonry structures, which appear to be vulnerable to horizontal dynamic loads such as earthquakes. However, such structures have stood for thousands of years despite numerous historic earthquakes. This study proposes a scaled-down dynamic centrifuge modelling test to study how these masonry structures resist seismic loading. The test is proposed for seismic risk assessments to evaluate risk of damage from a future seismic event. The seismic behaviour of a 3-storey, freestanding stone block structure has been modelled and tested within a centrifuge. Models were made at 3 different scales and dynamic tests were conducted using different centrifugal acceleration fields so that the behaviours could be transformed to an equivalent full-scale prototype and compared. Data from 2 earthquakes and a sweeping signal were used to simulate the effects of earthquake ground motion within the centrifuge. The acceleration and frequency responses at each storey height of the model were recorded in different centrifugal acceleration fields. Similar behaviours appeared when the results of the small-scale models were transformed to a full-size prototype scale. This confirms that the seismic behaviour of stone masonry structures can be predicted using scaled-down models.     

Fragility estimation and sensitivity analysis of an idealized pile-supported wharf with batter piles

The main objective of the present study is to develop seismic fragility curves of an idealized pile-supported wharf with batter piles through a practical framework. Proposing quantitative limit states, analytical fragility curves are developed considering three engineering demand parameters (EDPs), including displacement ductility factor (µ_d), differential settlement between deck and behind land (DS) and normalized residual horizontal displacement (NRHD). Analytical fragility curves are generated using the results of a numerical model. So, the accuracy and reliability of resulted fragility curves directly depend on how accurate the seismic demand quantities are estimated. In addition, the seismic performance of pile-supported wharves is highly influenced by geotechnical properties of the soil structure system. Hence, a sensitivity analysis using the first-order second-moment (FOSM) method is performed to evaluate the effects of geotechnical parameters uncertainties in the seismic performance of the wharf.Herein, the seismic performance of the wharf structure is simulated using the representative FLAC2D model and performing nonlinear time history analyses under a suit of eight ground motion records. Incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) is used to estimate the seismic demand quantities. As a prevailing tool, adopted fragility curves are useful to seismic risk assessment. They can also be used to optimize wharf-retrofit methods. The results of sensitivity analysis demonstrate that uncertainties associated with the porosity of loose sand contribute most to the variance of both NRHD and µ_d. While in the case of differential settlement, the friction angle of loose sand contributes most to the variance.     

Computation of degradation factors of p-y curves in liquefiable soils for analysis of piles using three-dimensional finite-element model

This paper presents a procedure to compute the values of degradation factors of p-y curves in the pseudo-static analysis of piles in liquefiable soils. Three-dimensional finite-element model was used for the computation of p and y values using OpenSees computer package. The piles were modeled using beam-column elements and elastic section. The soil continuum was modeled using brick elements and a two-surface plasticity model. By comparing the results of models in two cases of liquefiable and non-liquefiable, values of degradation factors were obtained. Validation of the degradation factors computed was conducted through the centrifuge test results. The simulation results showed a similar trend between degradation factor variation in different densities and sands. With increasing depth, the degradation factor increased. By comparing the results of pseudo-static analysis with the centrifuge test results, it was concluded that the use of the p-y curves with computed degradation factors in liquefiable sand gave reasonable results.     

Viscous fluid characteristics of liquefied soils and behavior of piles subjected to flow of liquefied soils

Lateral movement of sloping ground due to flow liquefaction has caused many pile foundations to fail, especially those in ports and harbor structures. Several researchers have found and verified that the behavior of liquefied soils can be simulated appropriately by modeling the liquefied soils as viscous fluid. In this study, the influence of the lateral movement of liquefied sloping ground on the behavior of piles was analyzed on the assumption that the flow of liquefied soils can be treated as viscous fluid flow. Sinking ball tests and pulling bar tests were performed to measure the viscosity of liquefied Jumoonjin sand. Then, the behavior of a single pile installed in liquefiable infinite slopes consisting of sand was investigated by numerical analyses. The liquefied sand behaved as non-Newtonian fluid, whose viscosity decreased with increasing shear strain rate. Furthermore, the flow of liquefied soils had a crucial effect on the stability of piles installed in the sloping ground.