On the relationship between Indian Ocean Dipole events and the precipitation of Pakistan

This study investigated the relationship between the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and the precipitation of Pakistan using data for the period of 1958–2010. The long-term evolution of the IOD index did not show interannual patterns similar to those of the annual precipitation of Pakistan. No linkage between the co-occurring trends of the IOD and the precipitation was traced during the period of investigation. The correlation between the IOD and the precipitation of Pakistan indicated a noteworthy impact over the monsoonal regions, especially the coastal area and the western region of Pakistan, which showed a significant positive correlation between the IOD index and annual and summer precipitation. A significant positive relationship was also revealed between the precipitation of the Balochistan Plateau and the IOD index for the summer monsoon season. No connection was observed between the IOD and the precipitation of the northern regions and the upper Indus Plain of Pakistan. Positive phases of the IOD have been noted to occur along with surplus precipitation during active monsoon conditions. The southeasterly wind moves from the Arabian Sea and transports additional moisture from the Arabian Sea to the coastal and southwestern parts of Pakistan during positive phases of the IOD.

     

Decadal and interannual variability of the Indian Ocean Dipole

This study investigates the decadal and interannual variability of the Indian Ocean Dipole （IOD）. It is found that the long-term IOD index displays a decadal phase variation. Prior to 1920 negative phase dominates but after 1960 positive phase prevails. Under the warming background of the tropical ocean, a larger warming trend in the western Indian Ocean is responsible for the decadal phase variation of the IOD mode. Due to reduced latent heat loss from the local ocean, the western Indian Ocean warming may be caused by the weakened Indian Ocean westerly summer monsoon. The interannual air-sea coupled IOD mode varies on the background of its decadal variability. During the earlier period （1948-1969）, IOD events are characterized by opposing SST anomaly （SSTA） in the western and eastern Indian Ocean, with a single vertical circulation above the equatorial Indian Ocean. But in the later period （1980-2003）, with positive IOD dominating, most IOD events have a zonal gradient perturbation on a uniform positive SSTA. However, there are three exceptionally strong positive IOD events （1982, 1994, and 1997）, with opposite SSTA in the western and eastern Indian Ocean, accompanied by an El Nifio event. Consequently, two anomalous reversed Walker cells are located separately over the Indian Ocean and western-eastern Pacific; the one over the Indian Ocean is much stronger than that during other positive IOD events.     

印度洋偶极子向海盆一致模转变的年代际变化及其成因

利用3种百年时间尺度的海温资料,探讨了印度洋偶极子(India Ocean Dipole, IOD)向海盆一致模(Indian Ocean Basin, IOB)年际转变的年代际变化,结果发现1940—1970年几乎不存在这一转变现象,1970年以后该现象则十分显著。研究表明,IOD与ENSO之间海气耦合作用的年代际变化是这一转变现象的主要原因,1940—1970年IOD与ENSO之间发生发展相互独立,而1970年以后联系密切。通过进一步对物理量场的诊断分析,揭示了其中主要的动力机理：1970年以前,热带印度洋上空形成的季风环流异常无法与热带太平洋的沃克环流异常进行耦合,IOD事件发生时无法与热带太平洋产生联系。反之,1970年以后,热带两大洋上空两个纬圈环流异常之间耦合作用强烈,正(负)IOD事件发生时,通过海气相互作用,促进El Ni1o(La Ni1a)发展,印度洋又会受到来自ENSO的正反馈作用。因此这种“齿轮式”耦合模型能一直持续到冬季和次年春季,热带印度洋上空持续受到东(西)风异常的影响和低层环流的引导,西印度洋有次表层暖水的流入(出),加上印度洋本身海盆尺度较小,西边的暖...     

南印度洋偶极子的特征及其与ENSO的关系

利用逐月OISST、ERSST及NCEP2表面风场等资料探讨了南印度洋偶极子(Southern Indian Ocean Dipole,SIOD)的结构特征、形成原因及其与ENSO的关系。结果表明:在南印度洋,偶极子形态的年际海表面温度异常在10—12月出现,次年2月达到极值,随后的4—6月消亡。SIOD的形成主要是风场、潜热通量和短波辐射通量起作用,混合层深度异常加厚或变浅有助于SIOD的形成。近30 a资料表明,SIOD的盛期超前ENSO 9~10个月,且具有季节锁相特征。20世纪70年代中期发生年代际气候突变后,SIOD与ENSO的相关关系显著增强。正SIOD事件之后一般都有El Nio事件发生,负SIOD事件之后都有La Nia事件发生。     

印度洋偶极子和华西秋雨的关系

利用统计方法对印度洋偶极子(Indian Ocean Dipole,IOD)与华西秋雨的关系进行分析。结果发现:(1)相对于IOD的季节锁相特征,华西秋雨与印度洋偶极子指数(Indian Ocean Dipole Index,IODI)相关性也呈现相应的变化特征:春、夏季正相关发展、范围扩大;秋季稳定且正相关性较高,与夏季时滞相关较为一致;前期冬季减弱并呈反相关关系。(2)对印度洋偶极子时期异常环流场、水汽场以及射出长波辐射(Outgoing Longwave Radiation,OLR)场特征分析发现,IOD正位相年,500 h Pa高度场距平在冬、春季为负异常,春、秋季西太平洋副热带高压偏强、偏北,且夏季华西区域受中层异常浅槽的西南气流影响,850 h Pa经向风合成在冬、春季以负异常为主,夏、秋季转为正异常,且华西区域秋季为异常气旋性环流控制,赤道印度洋低空东风异常,这些异常环流都利于华西区域降水偏多,并对偶极子的延续起到作用。(3)正位相年,冬、春季华西大部区域为水汽辐散区,夏、秋季四川东北部及黔渝大部为水汽辐合区,水汽输送依靠孟湾西南气流和西太平洋副热带高压外围的偏东气流完成。(4)对应于印度洋海温正(负)异常,秋季华西区域上空的热状况异常分布将使其大气对流增强(减弱)。因此,夏季IOD异常位相为华西秋雨预报提供了一个有用的前期信号,而秋季IOD正位相则对华西秋雨的发生发展起到较好的延续作用。     

印度洋偶极子与中国秋季降水的关系

利用1950--1999年Hadley中心全球海温资料、NCEP／NCAR再分析资料以及国家气象局整编的160站降水资料，分析讨论了夏季印度洋偶极子与中国秋季降水的时滞关系及秋季印度洋偶极子与同期中国降水的关系。结果表明：夏、秋季印度洋偶极子均与中国南方秋季降水有很好的正相关关系；通过对印度洋偶极子时期秋季异常环流场特征分析，发现正偶极子时期中国西南部受中层槽前西南气流影响，带来充足水汽，同时低层为异常气旋性环流控制，使该地区降水增加。     

Indian Ocean Dipole mode events and austral surface air temperature anomalies

The impact of Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) mode events on austral surface air temperature (SAT) variability was studied both by statistical analysis of observed/assimilated data and experiments with a mechanistic baroclinic atmospheric model.During the period of analysis (January 1958–December 1999), IOD events had the strongest impact on SAT anomalies during austral spring and hence, the analysis was focussed on this season. IOD events induced large scale, intercontinental correlations of SAT anomalies amongst Australia, Africa and South America. Surface temperature consistently rose (fell) abnormally and coherently in the subtropical regions of these continents during positive (negative) IOD events. Variability during non-IOD years was considerably weaker than during IOD years over these regions.Analysis of stream function anomalies at the 200 hPa level (source: NCEP/NCAR reanalysis) revealed a Rossby-wave train extending from the eastern Indian Ocean into the subtropical regions of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Further, the diagnosed Rossby-wave activity flux emanated from the eastern Indian Ocean and propagated along the subtropical and subpolar jet streams qualitatively in agreement with linear wave dynamics. Experiments with idealized forcing in a primitive equation mechanistic atmospheric model suggested that tropical convective anomalies in the Indian Ocean during IOD events likely affects the austral subtropics through stationary Rossby-wave propagation.     

Circulation Patterns Linked to the Positive Sub-Tropical Indian Ocean Dipole

The positive phase of the subtropical Indian Ocean dipole(SIOD) is one of the climatic modes in the subtropical southern Indian Ocean that influences the austral summer inter-annual rainfall variability in parts of southern Africa. This paper examines austral summer rain-bearing circulation types(CTs) in Africa south of the equator that are related to the positive SIOD and the dynamics through which specific rainfall regions in southern Africa can be influenced by this relationship. Four austral...     

深度学习在印度洋偶极子预报中的应用研究

印度洋偶极子（IOD）是热带印度洋秋季最强的年际变率,它会通过大气遥相关来影响世界许多地区的气候。目前耦合气候模式对IOD预报技巧仍非常有限,远低于热带太平洋的厄尔尼诺事件的预报技巧。鉴于深度学习具备高效的数据处理能力,本文使用深度学习中的卷积神经网络（CNN）与人工神经网络中的多层感知机（MLP）处理再分析观测资料,从而进行IOD预报。由于当预报初始时刻为北半球冬春季时,对IOD事件的预报技巧较低。因此,为探索CNN的预报能力,本文仅使用三种（1～3月、2～4月、3～5月）初始时刻的海表温度异常（SSTA）作为CNN的输入数据,来预报其后续七个月的印度洋偶极子指数（DMI）、东极子指数（EIOI）和西极子指数（WIOI）。结果表明:CNN对DMI、EIOI和WIOI的有效预测时效均超过了6个月。与现在耦合动力模式相比,CNN模型能够显著提升DMI和EIOI的预报技巧,但对WIOI的预报技巧提升有限。当预报提前时间为7个月时,CNN模型能够比较准确地预报1994、1997与2019年的IOD事件。由于CNN模型能够更好地抓住印度洋海温的空间结构特征,它对IOD事件的预报技巧比传统神经网络MLP高。     

热带印度洋次表层偶极子模态及其1997/1998年过程诊断分析研究

利用EOF分解及相关统计方法研究了热带印度洋400m以上的次表层海温异常并对1997/1998年热带印度洋偶极子事件过程进行诊断分析研究。结果表明:热带印度洋次表层400m以上的部分海温距平最大是在100m左右的深度, 就整个热带印度洋而言, 自20世纪80年代以来, 次表层60m以上出现了变暖的趋势, 而80m以下则出现了降温的趋势。同时在热带印度洋次表层80m深度存在着比海表更强的偶极子模态。1997/1998年发生在印度洋海表东冷西暖型的偶极子事件, 是东印度洋次表层的海温正距平西传的结果, 而海温正距平的西传与热带印度洋上东风异常有关, 其物理机制是东风异常激发的Rossby波的作用。     

Prediction and mechanistic analysis of May precipitation in North China based on April Indian Ocean SST and the Northwest Pacific Dipole

North China May precipitation (NCMP) accounts for a relatively small percentage of annual total precipitation in North China, but its climate variability is large and it has an important impact on the regional climate and agricultural production in North China. Based on observed and reanalysis data from 1979 to 2021, a significant relationship between NCMP and both the April Indian Ocean sea surface temperature (IOSST) and Northwest Pacific Dipole (NWPD) was found, indicating that there may be a link between them. This link, and the possible physical mechanisms by which the IOSST and NWPD in April affect NCMP anomalies, are discussed. Results show that positive (negative) IOSST and NWPD anomalies in April can enhance (weaken) the water vapor transport from the Indian Ocean and Northwest Pacific to North China by influencing the related atmospheric circulation, and thus enhance (weaken) the May precipitation in North China. Accordingly, an NCMP prediction model based on April IOSST and NWPD is established. The model can predict the annual NCMP anomalies effectively, indicating it has the potential to be applied in operational climate prediction.摘要尽管华北区域五月降水 (NCMP) 占华北区域年总降水量的比率较少, 但是其气候变率较大, 对华北区域气候和农业生产等具有重要影响. 基于观测和再分析资料, 发现NCMP与前期四月的印度洋海温 (IOSST) 和西北太平洋偶极子 (NWPD) 具有显著关系, NCMP可能受到IOSST和NWPD的协同影响. 进一步分析表明, 前期四月暖 (冷) 的IOSST和正 (负) 位相的NWPD能够分别通过调节印度洋和西北太平洋区域的局地环流增强 (减弱) 从印度洋和西北太平洋向华北区域输送的水汽, 进而增强 (减弱) NCMP. 最后基于四月IOSST和NWPD构建了NCMP异常的预测模型, 后报检验显示该模型对NCMP异常具有较好的预测能力.     

Influence of ENSO and of the Indian Ocean Dipole on the Indian summer monsoon variability

Indian summer monsoon (ISM) variability is forced from external factors (like the El Niño Southern Oscillation, ENSO) but it contains also an internal component that tends to reduce its potential for predictability. Large-scale and local monsoon indices based on precipitation and atmospheric circulation parameters are used as a measure of ISM variability. In a 9-members ensemble of AMIP-type experiments (with same boundary SST forcing and different initial conditions) their potential predictability is comparable using both local and large-scale monsoon indices. In the sample analyzed, about half of more predictable monsoon years coincide with El Niño and/or positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events. Summer monsoon characteristics during ENSO and IOD years are analyzed through composites computed over a three years period (i.e. one year before and one year after the event peak) to investigate the mutual relationship between the events lagged in time. The connection between ISM and IOD is mostly confined in the summer and autumn, while that with ENSO is stronger and extends more in time. In the coupled model results the IOD influence on the monsoon is large, even because in the model IOD events are intense and easily reproduced due to a strong air-sea feedback in the eastern side of the basin. Monsoon seasons preceding or following an El Niño or a La Niña event are not exactly symmetric, even in terms of their biennial character. In most of the cases, both in reanalysis and model, El Niño and positive IOD events tend to co-occur with larger anomalies either in the Indo-Pacific ocean sector or over India, while La Niña and negative IOD do not. From the observed record, the ENSO-IOD correlation is positive strong and significant since mid-60s and it may correspond with either strong or weak ENSO-monsoon relationship and with strong or weak IOD-monsoon relationship. A main difference between those periods is the relationship between Indian monsoon rainfall and SST in other ocean basins rather than the Indo-Pacific sector alone.     

赤道印度洋海温偶极子型振荡及其气候影响

对近百年观测资料的分析表明赤道印度洋海温(SST)确实存在着偶极子型振荡的变化特征,它在9～11月最强,而在1～4月最弱;年际变化(4～5年周期)和年代际变化(主要为20～25年周期)也十分清楚.这个偶极子主要有正位相型(海温西高东低)和负位相型(海温东高西低);一般正位相型的振幅强于负位相型.尽管在极个别年赤道印度洋海温偶极子似乎与太平洋ENSO无关,但总体而论,赤道印度洋海温偶极子与赤道太平洋海温偶极子(类似ENSO)有很好负相关.它们的联系主要是赤道大气纬向(Walker)环流.资料分析表明,赤道印度洋海温偶极子与亚洲南部流场、青藏高压和西太平洋副高都有明显关系,表明它对亚洲季风活动有重要影响.     

印度洋偶极子对大气环流和气候的影响

赤道印度洋SST的分析研究证实了偶极子型振荡的存在，它在9-11月较强而在1-4月较弱。若以海温西高东低为偶极子振荡正位相，以海温东高西低为负位相，则一般是正位相时振荡要强于负位相。印度洋偶极子也存在年际（主要周期为4－5年）和年代际（主要周期为25-30年）变化。分析研究表明，印度洋偶极子对亚洲季风活动有明显影响，因为亚洲地区对流层低层的风场，南亚高压和西太平洋副高强度都与印度洋偶极子有关。另外，印度洋偶极子还对北美和南印度洋（包括澳大利亚和南美）地区的大气环流和气流有影响。     

热带印度洋偶极子模态的不对称性及其成因的数值研究

热带印度洋偶极子 (Indian Ocean Dipole) 是印度洋海域内海洋和大气环流年际变化的主要特征模态之一, 在热带海气耦合系统中起到非常重要的作用。同热带太平洋的ENSO现象类似, 热带印度洋偶极子也呈现出显著的不对称性。本文利用中国科学院大气物理研究所发展的全球海洋环流模式, 在观测风应力距平的强迫下, 评估了模式对热带印度洋季节变化、 热带印度洋偶极子 (IOD) 模态及其不对称性的模拟能力, 并且通过数值试验分析了IOD模态不对称性特征及其对气候平均态的影响。对照观测资料, 模式较好地再现了热带印度洋SST在季风驱动下的季节变化特征。在年际时间尺度上, 模式不仅能够再现IOD指数的变化趋势, 而且可以成功模拟出IOD模态的空间分布特征, 即表层和次表层海温在西印度洋表现为正异常, 在东印度洋表现为负异常。可见, 对于热带印度洋而言, IOD模态主要是对风应力异常的响应。热带印度洋海温与Niño3.4指数的相关性分析表明, 模式能够模拟出超前热带太平洋ENSO现象2～4个月时海温的偶极子型分布, 但是不能模拟出滞后ENSO现象2个月左右的全海盆增暖模态, 可能是因为模式试验中没有考虑热通量年际异常的强迫。同时, 模式模拟的IOD模态具有同观测结果相类似的不对称性, 进一步的敏感性试验表明风应力的不对称性对偶极子指数的不对称性贡献较小, 次表层及以下海温的不对称性可能主要受到海洋内部非线性动力过程的影响。通过数值试验, 本文还发现热带印度洋海温的不对称性对气候平均态会有影响, 而这种不对称性长期积累后, 会导致上层热带印度洋温度层结趋于稳定状态。     

对印度洋偶极子中海洋环流异常的模拟研究

用高分辨率印度洋-太平洋区域海洋环流模式(IPOM)模拟研究印度洋偶极子(IOD)过程.用观测的1990年～1999年热带海表风应力强迫IPOM,模拟出20世纪90年代出现的两次(1994年和1997年)IOD过程中热带印度洋海温异常的一些基本特征.通过模拟的海洋环流过程,揭示出IOD过程中海洋环流异常的物理图像.发现在IOD事件时,东赤道印度洋上层出现强的向西(负)的距平流窄带,此距平流在赤道两侧向外辐散,且具有向西传的海洋Rossby波特征.IOD位相时在沿赤道的垂直剖面上,存在一个明显的距平环流圈:表层为强的向西距平流;下面为向东的补偿流;80°E以东存在着明显的涌升流,构成垂直环流圈的上升支;其下沉支主要在55°E以西的西印度洋.同时在热带东印度洋赤道两侧各有一个垂直的经向距平环流圈,其共同的上升支在赤道附近.在反IOD位相时,洋流距平分布与IOD位相截然相反,但洋流距平的绝对值较小.由上述距平洋流分布的特征发现,IOD过程中热带印度洋海温异常(东冷西暖)现象,可从水平和垂直海流的异常变化,特别是大范围异常涌升流和沉降流的出现得到解释.     

ENSO对印度洋偶极子非对称性的影响及机制研究北大核心

利用海表温度再分析资料、NCEP/NCAR大气环流再分析资料以及MPI-ESM1-2-LR气候模式PI-Control试验输出数据等,通过对不同强度的厄尔尼诺-南方涛动(El Nino-Southern Oscillation, ENSO)事件所对应的印度洋偶极子(Indian Ocean Dipole, IOD)事件的分析,探讨了ENSO对IOD偏度的调制作用。结果表明,伴随着赤道中东太平洋明显的正海温偏度,秋季印度洋海表温度存在西正东负的偏度。IOD与ENSO之间呈现出较强的非线性关系,且大部分强的正IOD事件对应着强El Nino事件。强El Nino位相下,IOD事件相关的海温与风场表现出很强的响应,强于La Nina事件产生的响应,表现为强的非对称性;相比较而言,弱El Nino事件与La Nina事件下引起的印度洋海温和风场的强度相当,并没有显著的非对称性。因此,ENSO可通过激发非对称的大气遥相关对IOD强度非对称性产生调制作用,印度洋海表温度偏度很大程度上是由强El Nino事件导致的强正IOD事件所贡献。     

1994年印度洋偶极子对两广地区后汛期降水异常的影响机理

利用1979—2017年中国地面气象台站2 400站中广东省和广西壮族自治区（简称两广地区）174站的逐日降水资料、英国Hadley中心的逐月海表温度资料、NCEP/NCAR逐月再分析资料,分析了1994年华南后汛期（7—9月）期间印度洋偶极子（Indian Ocean Dipole,IOD）对两广降水极端正异常的影响机理。结果表明,1994年的正位相IOD事件引起了两广地区后汛期偏多,影响机制主要为两方面：一方面,IOD东极子区域海温负异常时,水汽沿着印度北部-孟加拉湾北部-中南半岛-两广地区和孟加拉湾中部-中南半岛-两广地区的异常水汽输送通道向两广地区输送,使得两广地区水汽异常辐合;另一方面,IOD东极子区域海温异常偏低时,该地区对流层低层异常辐散、高层异常辐合、存在异常下沉运动,两广地区对流层低层异常辐合、高层异常辐散、受异常上升运动控制。上述物理机制共同作用,导致1994年后汛期两广地区降水极端正异常。     

南印度洋偶极子的变化特征及其与ENSO事件的联系

利用Hadley Center逐月海温资料以及NCEP/NCAR逐月风场、海平面气压场等资料探讨了南印度洋偶极子(Southern Indian Ocean Dipole,SIOD)的变化特征及其与ENSO事件的联系。结果表明:1)发生在南半球副热带印度洋地区的海温异常西南—东北反相的南印度洋偶极子现象,具有明显的季节锁相特征:10—12月发生发展,次年1—3月发展成熟达到盛期,4—6月减弱消亡;SIOD的形成主要受大尺度大气环流的影响,马斯克林高压以及澳大利亚低(高)压位置和强度的变化引起的副热带印度洋海表面风场的异常,影响了海温的变化,进而形成SIOD。2)南半球副热带印度洋地区的海温变化与赤道中东太平洋地区海温异常密切联系,前冬ENSO事件与SIOD有显著的负相关关系,大多数正SIOD发生在La Ni?a事件之后,大多数负SIOD发生在El Ni?o事件之后;也存在部分SIOD事件的发生既不伴随La Ni?a现象,也不伴随El Ni?o现象。3)ENSO事件产生的异常垂直运动和赤道异常纬向风对南半球副热带印度洋地区的海平面气压以及海表面风场的强度和位置的变化有重要作用,可以分别影响SIOD东西极子的演变,进而对SIOD产生影响。4)SIOD事件也可单独发生,一般负事件比正事件早一个月发生,同时由于没有ENSO事件的作用,海温异常反相的现象不能持续,单独发生的SIOD事件生命期较短。