The rheid concept in geotectonics

Abstract

The rheidity of a substance is defined as that property which determines whether it will behave as a fluid or solid for a particular experiment. It may be measured for given conditions of temperature, pressure, and shear stress, by that time for which the shear must be maintained for the deformation by viscous flow to exceed by one thousand times the elastic deformation. When loads are maintained for longer than the rheidity, the substance deforms as a fluid, and the elastic terms of the deformation equation may be neglected as insignificant. The rheidity of ice, salt, gypsum and serpentine are respectively of the order of a fortnight, a year, ten years and ten thousand years. Glaciers, salt domes, gypsum extrusions, and post-magmatic re-intrusion of serpentine are examples of rheid behaviour. Geological and astronomical evidence indicates that the rheidity of the mantle of the earth varies from tens of thousands of years at the top to hundreds of years at the base. Since tectonic loads are maintained from ten thousand to ten million years, the mantle of the earth behaves as a fluid for all geotectonic phenomena. The rheidity of the crust varies from 10⁵ to 10⁹ years, and hence the crust behaves as a solid for many tectonic processes. Geosynclinal materials and orogenic zones have, in general, shorter rheidities. and many fluid phenomena occur. Crystalline schists undergo rheid folding in the cores of orogens. Rheid folding, in spite of its appearance of extreme complexity, obeys simple geometrical laws, the understanding of which allows the complexly attenuated and contorted folds to be projected and extrapolated from fragmentary data. The universal contortion of the Archaean gneisses, which is usually regarded as evidence of intense shortening, does not necessarily imply much shortening or intense diastrophism.     

东川矿区几个关键构造问题与铜矿远景评估

本文初步提出了东川大型推覆体的几何结构、烂泥坪黑矿尖子控制特高品位裂隙富矿的层控脉型脆－韧性剪切带及白锡膜矿段的构造推覆模型。根据上述研究结果著者们认为：东川地区具有发展成超大型铜矿的成矿地质条件,因而生产矿山仍有地质找矿潜力。     

开合构造研究中的几个问题

开合构造是中国学者提出来的一种大地构造观点,强调开裂运动和聚合运动是统一地球动力体系中的2种基本运动形式。开合构造是从开与合相互对立、相互依存、相互转化来研究区域地质特征和大地构造演化的。本文简介了开合构造中的几个问题:开合构造是一种新的大地构造观点;开合运动是地质运动的高级形式;开合类型是固定论和活动论的对立统一;开、合、剪之间是辩证关系;开合构造要冲出国门走向世界。     

Some problems of slope development

Slopes are the fundamental unit of the physiographic landscape. Yet the reasons for variations in their morphology and inferred mode of development are not well understood. The problem is complex, but the slope budget, which results primarily from the interplay of climatically induced factors and structure is significant: where the erosion of the upper slope elements surpasses that on the lower, parallel retreat prevails, but when the reverse is the case, slope decline is dominant. Complications are introduced by such factors as climatic change and fluctuations of baselevel, both local and general. But structural factors can and do override all others.

A knowledge of geomorphic history, and of processes and their effectiveness under various circumstances, in advance of that usually at our disposal at present is necessary before slopes can satisfactorily be analysed. It appears unlikely that there is a universal law of slope development..     

A New Gastrioceras from Sinkiang

In the rich collection of fossils made in Sinkiang by Professor P.L.Yuan of the Tsinghua University,there are a few but very beautifulspecimens representing a new species of Gastrioceras.They were obtainedfrom Shihtsientan~1,a locality lying about 150 kilometers NNE of theChitai city~2 in northern Sinkiang.The writer takes the opportunity torecord sincere thanks to Professor P.L.Yuan for giving him the privilege     

工程地质学面临的几个困难

本文就岩土体的不连续性问题,岩体变形破坏的微观机制问题及时空问题,岩体的大变形与小变形问题,进行了讨论。     

亚洲大地构造基本特征和演化规律

根据中国学者的开合构造观点,分析了亚洲大地构造基本特征和演化规律,提出“构造集群”、“构造运动程式”等一些新的认识。（1）亚洲划分为11个大地构造旋回并归纳为大陆基底形成、泛大陆和超大陆形成与发展以及现代板块构造与陆内演化三大阶段。（2）以23条俯冲带或碰撞带为骨干,划分了以西伯利亚陆块、古中华陆块、印度陆块和太平洋板块为核心的北亚、中亚、南亚和东亚4个构造集群,以及11个二级和86个三级构造单元。构造集群系指具有成生联系的陆块、大小不同的地块和各个时期造山带的聚合体;两个构造集群间存在一个构造结合区。（3）亚洲构造变形特点为：中亚构造集群基本呈东西向展布,分别受围绕西伯利亚陆块分布的向南突出的弧形构造和围绕印度陆块分布的主体向北北东突出的弧形构造（仅内弧出现了向南突出的喜马拉雅弧）的挤压,它们同时又被北北东向展布的东亚构造集群强烈改造,从而形成了复杂的构造格局,表明古中华陆块在亚洲大地构造演化中起着“中流砥柱”的重要作用。（4）亚洲大地构造时空演化与全球同步经历了哥伦比亚古陆、罗迪尼亚古陆和潘基亚古陆形成的3次重要造陆事件。在此过程中,中亚构造集群独具特色：哥伦比亚古陆1 850 Ma形成,稍早于南亚构造集群（1 800 Ma）和北亚构造集群（1 800~1 600 Ma）;罗迪尼亚古陆830 Ma形成,晚于南北两侧的900~1 000 Ma;潘基亚古陆210 Ma形成,也比全球普遍于250 Ma形成的时间晚。印支运动的广泛发育和强烈影响是中亚构造集群乃至亚洲最显著的特征。（5）总结出背向俯冲对接式、单向运移拼贴式和原地开合手风琴式3种构造运动程式。背向俯冲对接式的动因是地幔对流（软流圈对流或地幔柱对流）;单向运移拼贴式可能与地幔上升产生的地幔层流有关;原地开合手风琴式推测是深部地幔“热点”周期活动所致。     

Some problems of volcanism in Iceland

Until two decades or so ago the petrography of Iceland seemed to present a rather simple picture. About 99 per cent of the rocks were regarded as basaltic, 1 per cent as rhyolitic and rocks of intermediate composition as nearly non-existent. Recent research has changed this picture. Central volcanoes producing acid and intermediate lava and tephra have played a considerable role both in the Tertiary and Quaternary. Contrary to the lava massproducing basalt volcanoes, fed by a deep-seated and rather uniform basalt magma source, the differentiated central volcanoes are normally fed by separated magma chambers at smaller depth, where differentiation takes place between the eruptions, resulting in intermediate and acid products which bridge the immiscibility gap between the basalts and the rhyolites. Eight to ten per cent of the postglacial lavas and tephras and about 25 per cent of the historical ones are acid or intermediate.Opinions still differ as to whether the existence of these rocks can be explained solely as the result of gravitational differentiation of parent basalt magma or has to be explained partly by a remelting of a continental layer beneath the plateau-basalts. There are, however, some rather strong geological evidences in favour of the existence of such a layer and they seem at the moment not to be contradicted by geophysical research.The Surtsey eruption has demonstrated the close relation between the craterrows, shieldvolcanoes and tablemountains and convincingly shown how greatly external circumstances may influence volcanic activity and the shape of a volcano. The eruption focused interest on the neovolcanic zone of Iceland as a supra marine part of the Mid-Atlantic rift-ridge zone, where volcanic activity has taken place under similar conditions as along its submarine parts, viz. under water (glacial meltwater) when the Pleistocene ice-sheets blanketed the volcanic activity. Similar morphological types of volcanoes can therefore be expected in both cases, viz. steepsided mounds and long steepsided ridges.

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Zusammenfassung Bis vor ungefähr zwei Jahrzehnten schien die Petrographie Islands ein verhältnismäßig einfaches Bild zu bieten. Etwa 99% des Gesteins wurde für basaltisch, 1% für rhyolithisch, und Gesteine von intermediärer Zusammensetzung für fast nicht existent gehalten. Die jüngste Forschung hat dieses Bild gewandelt. Zentralvulkane, die saure und intermediäre Lava und Tephra ausstoßen, haben im Tertiär wie auch im Quartär eine erhebliche Rolle gespielt. Im Gegensatz zu den Basaltvulkanen, welche von einer tiefgelegenen und ziemlich einheitlichen Basaltmagmaquelle gespeist werden und Lava in Massen ausstoßen, werden die differenzierten Zentralvulkane normalerweise von getrennten Magmakammern in geringerer Tiefe gespeist, wo eine Differentiation zwischen den Eruptionen stattfindet. Es entstehen intermediäre und saure Materialien, die die Immiszibilitätslücke zwischen den Basalten und den Rhyolithen überbrücken. 8–10% der postglazialen Laven und Tephren und etwa 25% der historischen sind sauer oder intermediär.Die Meinungen gehen noch auseinander hinsichtlich der Frage, ob das Vorkommen dieses Gesteins allein als das Ergebnis einer gravitativen Differentiation des basaltischen Stamm-Magmas erklärt werden kann, oder ob man es teilweise mit einem Wiedereinschmelzen einer Sialschicht unterhalb der Tafelbasalte erklären muß. Es gibt für die Existenz einer solchen Schicht einige ziemlich überzeugende geologische Zeugnisse, und es scheint so, als ob diesen gegenwärtig durch die geophysikalische Forschung nicht widersprochen würde.Die Surtsey-Eruption hat die enge Beziehung zwischen den Kraterreihen, den Schildvulkanen und den Tafelbergen aufgezeigt und überzeugend dargelegt, wie stark äußere Umstände die Vulkantätigkeit und die Form eines Vulkans beeinflussen können. Diese Eruption konzentrierte das Interesse auf die neovulkanische Zone Islands als eines supramarinen Teils des mittelatlantischen Rückens, wo die Vulkantätigkeit während der Glazialperioden der quartären Eiszeit unter ähnlichen Bedingungen stattgefunden hat, wie entlang ihrer submarinen Teile, d. h. unter Wasser (glazialem Schmelzwasser). Man darf deshalb in beiden Fällen ähnliche morphologische Vulkantypen erwarten, d. h. steilwandige Hügel und lange steilwandige Rücken.

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Résumé Vingt ans plus tôt la pétrographie de l'Islande paraissaît assez simple. Les recherches récentes ont changé cette conception. Des volcans centraux ont joué un rôle considérable au Tertiaire et au Quaternaire. Les volcans basaltiques sont nourris par des sources profondes et assez homogénes de magma basaltique. Par contre les volcans centraux sont nourris par des chambres magmatiques moins profondes ou il y a une différenciation des éruptions: il y a des matériaux intermédiaires et acides. 8–10% des laves et tephras postglaciales et 25% des laves et tephras historiques sont acides ou intermédiaires.Les opinions diffèrent encore dans la question si l'existence de ces roches est le résultat d'une différenciation du magma basaltique original ou s'il s'agit d'une refonte d'une couche continentale au-dessous des plateaux basaltiques.L'éruption de Surtsey a démontré la relation étroite entre les chaînes de cratères, les volcans en bouclier et les guyots. Elle montre combien des circonstances extérieures ont influencé l'activité volcanique et la forme d'un volcan Cette éruption attircut l'intérêt vers la zone néo volcanique de l'Islande. C'est la partie supramarine de la faille-dorsale-zone mi-atlantique ou l'activité volcanique a en lieu sous des conditions pareilles à celles de la partie submarine, c'est à dire sous l'eau (eau glaciale). Dans les deux cas on pent supposer de pareils types morphologiques de volcans.

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扬子板块东北缘中元古代的大地构造划分

扬子板块东北缘存在四条主要的中元古代变质带,自南向北依次为江南变质带、沿江变质带、云台-张八岭变质带和连云港-泗阳变质带.它们分别为中元古代的古弧后盆地、火山岛弧、裂谷及弧前盆地,扬子板块东北缘中元古代为活动大陆边缘构造体系.苏(北)胶(南)变质造山带应解体,其中一部分属扬子大陆边缘体系.     

地球表层系统与中国区域大地构造的研究发展

地球表层系统科学与地质学史都具有自然科学和社会科学相结合的特征,两者研究内容和研究目标互有关联,都是从不同角度揭示地球各种地质作用和地质过程的客观规律,促使人与自然和谐发展。在地球表层系统各地质学科中,大地构造占有重要地位,因而探讨中国区域大地构造研究史,对地质学史也有重要意义。文中将中国区域大地构造的研究分为6个阶段,总结其发展的经验和过程,说明社会环境、科学路线、科技水平、思维方法等是决定科学发展的关键因素。21世纪地球表层系统科学将成为地球科学的主流之一,中国区域大地构造的研究应迅速融入地球表层系统的研究,同时也要积极创建新的大地构造理论体系。     

Some problems with the cumulus theory

There are a number of features in layered intrusions which do not appear to be consistent with the cumulus theory. The most important of these are: (1) Rhythmic layering in plagioclase-pyroxene cumulates from some intrusions (e.g. Jimberlana and Stillwater) may be inverted with the light plagioclase-rich cumulates at the base of the layer and heavy pyroxene-rich cumulates at the top. (2) Hydraulic sorting in rhythmically layered cumulates is often poor, suggesting that chemical and not mechanical processes control the distribution of minerals in this type of layered sequence. (3) The textures of cumulates from the steeply dipping marginal zone of Jimberlana, which cannot have formed by gravity settling, are indistinguishable from those found in the flatly dipping central layers of the intrusion. Similarly, it is difficult to explain the cumulate textures in the ‘overturned’ marginal layered series of Jimberlana. (4) Igneous layering, including cross-bedding, graded bedding and trough banding, has been described in layered sequences with near-vertical primary dips. (5) Calculations and experiments with a centrifuge furnace suggest that plagioclase cannot sink in Fe-rich tholeiitic liquids. (6) The settling of crystals as individual grains assumes that nucleation is homogeneous. This is unlikely.

It is probable that heterogeneous and self-nucleation are the dominant nucleation mechanisms during the formation of cumulates. This gives rise to two possibilities. Firstly, that most grains nucleate against pre-existing settling crystals to form composite grains which gravitate to the floor of the chamber. Secondly, that the cumulus grains nucleate in situ at the temporary floor of the magma chamber.     

日喀则蛇绿岩研究中的几个问题

日喀则蛇绿岩是中国最著名的蛇绿岩,但是,许多问题存在争论,许多现象没有搞清楚。文中讨论了日喀则蛇绿岩中一些重要的现象以及对目前发现的许多矛盾如何考虑的问题。例如,(1)日喀则蛇绿岩中是否存在席状岩墙群?是否存在席状岩床群?本文认为,席状岩墙群应当是存在的,因为有不对称冷凝边出现。而席状岩床群可能是有问题的,岩床作为侵入体可以出现在许多地方,但是,蛇绿岩中不可能出现席状岩床群,尤其还把它作为蛇绿岩岩石组合的一个单元。笔者认为,所谓的席状岩床群可能是席状岩流群,它不是一个独立的单元,是玄武岩单元下部的成员。(2)日喀则蛇绿岩是否统统是蛇绿岩是一个需要考虑的问题,雅鲁藏布江东西两段出现的岩石组合及其产出背景与日喀则地区的蛇绿岩明显不同,其中有些可能未必是蛇绿岩。(3)自1972年彭罗斯会议以来,蛇绿岩研究发展到现在,可能已经进入了一个关键时期。文中回顾了蛇绿岩的定义及其构造意义,指出1972年彭罗斯会议关于蛇绿岩的定义仍然是适用的。蛇绿岩可以概括为洋壳+地幔,这个洋壳来自板块扩张脊,是年轻的;这个地幔是大洋岩石圈地幔,也可能保留有古老岩石圈地幔的印记。蛇绿岩产于板块扩张脊,这是蛇绿岩构造含义的唯一解,蛇绿岩不存在多解性。(4)日喀则蛇绿岩的许多基本观点主要是法国学者提出来的,如关于岩床群的见解,慢速扩张的见解等。但是,上述见解是否都是对的是需要思考的。日喀则蛇绿岩具有得天独厚的条件,我们应当很好利用这个条件,努力把我们的研究做好,为全球蛇绿岩研究贡献我们的一份力量。     

埃达克岩研究的几个问题

在简略分析中国埃达克岩研究情况的基础上,讨论了新近在有关埃达克岩研究方面取得的主要进展,探讨了先前埃达克岩研究中很少或者没有注意到的特殊的地球动力学意义。强调O型埃达克岩的出现标志着大洋萎缩消减的开始,C型埃达克岩的出现则暗示地壳在此之前就已经加厚,同时认为要解决埃达克岩研究中存在的一些问题,在很大程度上还有赖于青藏高原的埃达克岩研究。     

叶碲铋矿研究中存在问题分析

叶碲铋矿最初定名为wehrlite，结构式为Bi2 xTe3-x，后于1982年改名为pilsenite，结构式相应改为Bi4Te3。楚碲铋矿(BiTe)的成分介于原叶碲铋矿的成分范围之内。有些研究者仍用原成分确定叶碲铋矿或把楚碲铋矿当作叶碲铋矿，本文旨在提醒研究者注意，避免误用。     

浅谈地质资料管理的几个问题

国务院颁布的《地质资料管理条例》已于2002年7月1日在全国实施，《条例》以法规的形式颁布，显示出新时期地质资料的特点，即地质资料管理由以往单纯强调成果地质资料汇交，向统一汇交、公开利用、权益保护多领域职责转变。在统一汇交方面，《条例》规定了地质资料汇交由国务院和省（自治区、直辖市）人民政府地质矿产主管部门实行两级管理。     

Some problems of neolithic agriculture in Japan

Conclusion It is evident, from what has been discussed, that the L. forest culture theory might be disproved on account of some doubtful points. The hypothesis will hold, however, that the rice farming in the prehistoric age was introduced through the L. forest zone from the mouth of the Yangtzu Chian to N Kyushu. Therefore, for the present we can at least recognize that the L. forest culture was established mainly on the basis of rice farming.     

地质勘查工作实行项目管理值得注意的几个问题

指出了由传统方法管理地勘项目存在的弊端,说明了实施项目管理的必要性,并提出了项目管理过程中值得注意的几个问题.     

转换波处理一些问题及对策

由于转换波本身的特殊性,在处理过程中需要采用不同于纵波的处理方法。分析了转换波处理过程中的一些问题,即面波衰减、静校正、各向异性动校正,以及方位各向异性校正,提出相应的解决方法。采用极化滤波方法,实现了转换波上的面波衰减。采用综合静校正技术,切实解决转换波静校正问题。各向异性速度分析及动校正方法,用于拉平转换波资料的近、中和远偏移距同相轴。通过横波分裂分析及分量校正补偿,提高了转换波径向剖面质量。根据实际资料处理效果,说明了这些方法的有效性。