Some possibilities for statistical processing of kinematic parameters of reflected waves

The problem of how to implement seismic exploration for the direct location of petroliferous deposits is illuminated. As such it is of course of great immediate interest. Some possibilities toward this goal are offered by a statistical study of peculiarities of registration which permit the determination of the interfering zone. The parameter of residual asymmetry is studied and the results are illustrated for two field situations involving known fields. — Petroleum Abstracts.     

Axial kinematic response of end‐bearing piles to P waves

Kinematic pile–soil interaction under vertically impinging seismic P waves is revisited through a novel continuum elastodynamic solution of the Tajimi type. The proposed model simulates the steady‐state kinematic response of a cylindrical end‐bearing pile embedded in a homogeneous viscoelastic soil stratum over a rigid base, subjected to vertically propagating harmonic compressional waves. Closed‐form solutions are obtained for the following: (i) the displacement field in the soil and along the pile; (ii) the kinematic Winkler moduli (i.e., distributed springs and dashpots) along the pile; (iii) equivalent, depth‐independent, Winkler moduli to match the motion at the pile head. The solution for displacements is expressed in terms of dimensionless transfer functions relating the motion of the pile head to the free‐field surface motion and the rock motion. It is shown that (i) a pile foundation may significantly alter (possibly amplify) the vertical seismic excitation transmitted to the base of a structure and (ii) Winkler moduli pertaining to kinematic loading differ from those for inertial loading. Simple approximate expressions for kinematic Winkler moduli are derived for use in applications. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

散粒体滑坡涌浪运动特征与能量转化规律研究

滑坡涌浪灾害造成的伤亡和损失一般远超滑坡灾害本身,已引起广泛关注。针对该类灾害的预测评价一直是研究的难点,精细刻画滑坡涌浪运动特征和能量转化规律是解决问题的关键和前提。因此,以天然碎石模拟散粒体滑坡,建立缩尺的矩形水槽滑坡涌浪三维物理试验模型,研究滑坡体积、速度和水深对堆积体形态和涌浪特征的影响以及滑体与水体能量转化规律。研究结论包括：（1）滑体通过冲击、挤压和抬升水体形成涌浪的特征受滑体规模和形态影响显著;厚度大且速度快的滑体趋向产生非线性过渡波,厚度小且速度低的滑体一般产生非线性震荡波;（2）基于试验提出的体积效应和速度效应揭示了一定水深的涌浪规模与滑坡体积和速度呈正相关规律,水深效应则解释了一定波能的涌浪在波形和速度上的分布差异,结果表明浅水比深水工况涌浪高度平均高出67%、波速平均高出51.17%;（3）基于试验的数值反演总结了滑体势能与波能转化率为1.00%~3.07%,由于三维试验中滑体与水体在水平和环向的扩散造成更多能量耗散,相较二维试验转化率较低。通过探讨散粒体滑坡运动过程和首浪产生、传播及爬高特征,揭示滑体-水体能量转化基本规律,研究成果对滑坡涌浪防灾减灾工作具有一定的理论价值和意义。     

Some features of mineral waters in Russia

 The Russian Federation has many aquifers and these possess a wide range of chemical compositions. In Russia about 300 mineral water sources have been developed as spas and health resorts. More than 150 of them produce bottled mineral water. A brief historical revue is given. The study of mineral waters in Russia began as far back as the reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725). It has been prolonged by works of many Russian scientists. The details of the chemical composition of the different types of Russian mineral waters and some geological aquifer peculiarities are described. The most widely used classification of mineral waters in Russia is presented. The present condition of these waters and the government standards laid down for their use are described. Examples of different mineral waters are given. Received: 14 April 1998 / Accepted: 8 December 1998     

Some special features of composition and genesis of chromites

The chrome spinellids from ores associated with basic formations differ from chromites found in ultrabasic formations by their higher content of alumina and iron, and by the presence of FeAl₂0₄. Chromites of early and late magmatic origin differ in composition. During the formation of late magmatic chromites the filtration effect is accompanied by recrystallization of primary magmatic dunites and generation of rims around the ore zones. These rims contain more magnesium, because iron was extracted by the crystallizing chrome spinellids. -- E. A. Alexandrov.     

Certain features of dynamic characteristics of reflected waves in the Ust'-Balyk oil field

The amplitudinal anomaly over the central part of the oil deposit, as logged, cannot be harmonized with the theoretical calculations, and the true picture of absorbtion of seismic waves by the oil deposit is still the problem. However, statistical processing of amplitudinal ratios of the waves reflected from planes above and below the deposit show definite peaks over the deposit's periphery and probably represent the high reflection coefficient of the lower reference horizon. -- V .P. Sokoloff.     

Some regularities in the dynamics of the periods of sea wind waves

An empirical equation on a change in the periods of wind waves at the point of recording, which makes it possible to calculate the period of wind waves in any direction on a time scale, is derived based on the experimental data.     

Some features of minerals developing from gels of complex composition

Results of an investigation of the processes accompanying formation of pyrite, native arsenic, pitchblende, and coffinite are here reported. Differentiation of gel substance follows the pattern of processes inherent in colloids and grades into processes typical of crystalline substances. The colloidal origin of minerals determines the nature of paragenesie found in recrystallized ore. -- E.A. Alexandrov.     

Some structural features of the convective-velocity field in the solar photosphere

An algorithm for measuring horizontal photospheric velocities previously employed to process aerospace images is adapted for problems in solar physics and realized in a computational code. It differs from the standard procedure of local correlation tracking in a special choice of trial areas (“targets”), whose displacements are determined bymaximizing the correlation between the original and various shifted positions of the target. Specifically, an area is chosen as a target in a certain neighborhood of each node of a predefined grid if either the contrast or the entropy of the brightness distribution reaches its maximum in this area. The horizontal velocities obtained are then interpolated to the positions of imaginary “corks” using the Delaunay triangulation and affine transformations specified by the deformation of the obtained triangles at the time step considered. The motion of the corks is represented by their trajectories. A superposition of flows on different scales, from mesogranular to supergranular, can clearly be seen. “Large mesogranules” with sizes of order 15 Mm are revealed. In many cases, these are stellate in shape. Areas of strong convergence of the horizontal flows are detected; this convergence is sometimes accompanied by swirling. Evidence is found for the possible coexistence of convection cells with different circulation directions, so-called l-type and g-type cells.     

Some chemical structural features of coals of differing maceral distributions and stratigraphy

Six North American bituminous coals (four Carboniferous and two Cretaceous) and eight maceral concentrates from Carboniferous British seams have been heated with tetralin and hydrogen to 400°C. The hexane-soluble parts of the products were separated by column chromatography and the fractions were then analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. In all cases the aromatic hydrocarbon fraction was a very complex mixture containing a number of alkylated biphenyls, diphenylmethanes and -ethanes, and polycyclic compounds. However single ioncchromatography (m/z = 142) showed that, in addition to these, the products from five of the six American coals contained homologous series of long chain n-alkylnapththalenes with alkyl groups extending to C₁₆. In other fractions from the American coals, homologous series of n-alkylfurans and alkylphenols were found to be major components, as also were many alkylcyclohexenones related to isophorone. Extensive homologous series of n-alkyl aromatics were not detected in products from any of six vitrinites from British seams, though series of n- and iso-alkylphenols were found in the products from two sporinite concentrates. A number of polycyclic ketones apparently related to sterols were found in the products from the British vitrinites but not from any American coals. Reasons for what appear to be systematic structural differences between the American and British coals are discussed. Differences in stratigraphy are noted and it seems not impossible that differences in source vegetation are significant.     

Some features of possible sources of the energy release in solar flares

Magnetic field singularities detected earlier as the self-intersection points of the F = 0 curves/surfaces are studied (where F is a certain differential factor calculated in the reference frame of the magnetic field at the given point); these singularities can be considered to be sources of the energy release in solar flares. Two types of such singularities, called transition points (TPs), have been found: the first type (TP1) corresponds to an intersection of the same type of components (terms) of the divergence of the magnetic field, and the second type (TP2) to the intersection of dissimilar components. There are some discontinuous spatial processes at these singularities, which produce jumps in the components of the divergence of the magnetic field (and their signs). TP2 singularities should result in much stronger effects than those resulting from TP1 singularities, which should give rise to the most powerful solar flares. The singularities studied are also compared with the null point of the magnetic field, when it exists. In particular, a model magnetic field containing a null point is considered. It is shown that the TP singularities do not coincide with the null point, but can be located in its vicinity; in the case considered, the TP1 singularity is located fairly close to the null point.     

Some petrological features of Bosnian peridotitegabbro-complexes in the Dinaride zone of Yugoslavia

Summary The ophiolite zone of the Dinarides is part of the long gabbro-peridotitebelt stretching from the Alps to the Himalajas. It comprises plutonic rocks. ranging from peridotite to albite granite which intrude sediments of Jurassic (?) age (Diabase-Hornstein Formation) and are unconformably overlain by coarse-grained clastic sediments of Tithonian age.The principal plutonic rocks are alpine-type peridotite, represented by gneissic lherzolite and banded lherzolite with alternating olivinite and pyroxenite bands. Contacts between ultramafics and country rocks are distinctly tectonic and no contact phenomena have been detected. The banding of the ultramafics is dicordant with the long dimension of the larger rock units. It is presumed that the ultramafics were intruded into the Jurassic rocks as solid masses.Gabbro is about 5 percent as abundant as peridotite. It appears to be of two kinds, one related to peridotite, and the other related to dolerite. Feldspathic peridotite, troctolite, olivine gabbro and subordinate diallage gabbro are interlayered with, and grade into, feldspar-free peridotite. Compositional variations in the gabbro are obscure on a small scale and banding is not as easily recognized as in the ultramafic rocks.Gabbro related to dolerite forms distinct sill-like bodies in Jurassic sediments, frequently unrelated to ultramafic rocks. Rocks intruded by the sills are metamorphosed, unlike those along contacts with peridotite-related gabbro. The sills consist, predominantly of more or less amphibolized gabbrodolerite with subordinate gabbro-diorite, oligoclasite, albitite, albite syenite, and albite granite. The degree and trends of differentiation vary in different gabbro-dolerite masses.Amphibolites are as abundant as gabbro and occur mostly along contacts between ultramafics and Jurassic rocks. They appear to be of two kinds which can be correlated with the two kinds of gabbroic rocks.The two intrusive associations cannot be explained by a single magmatic process as proposed by the classical ophiolite hypothesis. All the relations suggest that the peridotite and associated gabbro were intruded in a nearly, if not quite solid state. They may have been derived from the basement of the Jurassic eugeosyncline made up of old Paleozoic formations or from the upper mantle.The gabbroic rocks associated with dolerite are cumulates formed by gravitational crystal settling from a primary tholeiite magma. The associated albite-containing rocks might be considered as final products of this fractionation, which also may have produced flows of spilite and subordinate keratophyre in the Jurassic sediments. It seems possible, however, that the soda-rich rocks could be a separate group formed from a hydrous spilitekeratopyre melt complementary to primary tholeiite magma. The gabbrodolerite rocks have been transformed into amphibolite of epidote amphibolite and low amphibolite facies by regional metamorphism.The interlayering of the amphibolite of higher metamorphic facies, containing labradorite and bytownite, with peridotite, suggests that they once were layered gabbro. This interlayering indicates a common origin. The relations of the banding and foliation indicate a good deal about the character of the flowage processes both in the amphibolite and in the ultramafics.

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Einige petrographische Züge bosnischer Peridotit-Gabbro-Komplexe der Dinariden-Zone Jugoslawiens

Zusammenfassung Die Ophiolith-Zone der Dinariden bildet einen Teil des langen Gabbro-Peridotit-Bogens, der sich von den Alpen bis zum Himalaya erstreckt. Sie umfaßt von Peridotit bis Albit-Granit reichende Erstarrungsgesteine, welche in Sedimente jurassischen (?) Alters intrudieren (Diabas-Hornstein-Formation) und welche diskordant von grobklastischen thitonen Sedimenten überlagert werden.Die verbreitesten Erstarrungsgesteine sind alpinotype Peridotite, die durch gneisartige Lherzolithe und gebänderte Lherzolithe mit abwechselnden Olivinit-und Pyroxenit-Bändern vertreten werden. Die Kontakte zwischen den Ultramfiten und den Rahmengesteinen sind eindeutig tektonisch—es wurden keinerlei Kontakterscheinungen gefunden. Die Bänderung der Ultramafite liegt diskordant zur Längserstreckung der größeren Gesteinseinheiten. Es wird angenommen, daß die Ultramafite als feste Massen in die jurassischen Sedimente intrudiert wurden.Die Gabbros machen mengenmäßig etwa 5 Prozent der Peridotite aus. Es scheint zwei Arten zu geben: Die eine hat Beziehungen zu den Peridotiten, die andere zu den Diabasen. Feldspat-führende Peridotite, Troktolithe, Olivingabbros und untergeordnete Diallaggabbros wechseln lagenweise mit Feldspat-freiem Peridotit und gehen in diesen über. In kleinem Maßstab sind Wechsel in der Zusammensetzung der Gabbros undeutlich, und die Bänderung ist nicht so leicht zu erkennen wie bei den ultramafischen Gesteinen.Die Gabbros, welche Beziehungen zu den Doleriten zeigen, bilden getrennte Lagergang-ähnliche Körper in jurassischen Sedimenten; sie zeigen häufig keine Beziehungen zu ultramafischen, Gesteinen. Im Gegensatz zu den Kontakten von Peridotit-verwandten Gabbros zeigen Gesteine, in welche Lagergänge intrudierten, Metamorphoseerscheinungen. Die Lagergänge bestehen hauptsächlich aus mehr oder weniger amphibolisierten Gabbro-Doleriten mit untergeordneten Gabbro-Dioriten, Oligoklasiten, Albititen, Albit-Syeniten und Albit-Graniten. Ausmaß und Richtung der Differentiation variieren in den verschiedenen Gabbro-Dolerit-Massen.Amphibolite sind ebenso häufig wie Gabbros und kommen meist an den Kontakten zwischen Ultramafiten und jurassischen Gesteinen vor. Es scheint zwei Arten zu geben, welche den beiden Arten gabbroider Gesteine zugeordnet werden können.Die zwei intrusiven Assoziationen können nicht durch einen einzigen magmatischen Prozeß erklärt werden, wie dies durch die klassische Ophiolith-Hypothese versucht wurde. Alle Beziehungen weisen darauf hin, daß die Peridotite und die damit assoziierten Gabbros im fast, wenn nicht sogar völlig festen Zustand intrudiert wurden. Sie können vielleicht aus der Basis der jurassischen Eugeosynklinale, die aus altpaläozoischen Formationen aufgebaut ist, oder aus dem oberen Mantel stammen.Die mit Doleriten verknüpften gabbroiden Gesteine sind Anreicherungen, die durch gravitative Kristallabsonderung aus einem primären tholeiitischen Magma entstanden sind. Die zugehörigen Albit-führenden Gesteine könnten als Endprodukte, dieser Fraktionierung, welche auch Ströme von Spilit und untergeordnet Keratophyr in den jurassischen Sedimenten erzeugt haben könnten, betrachtet werden. Es scheint indessen möglich, daß die Natriumreichen Gesteine eine eigene Gruppe bilden könnten, die aus einer zum primären tholeiitischen Magma komplementären, wasserreichen Spilit-Kerato-phyrschmelze entstanden. Die Gabbro-Dolerit-Gesteine wurden durch Regionalmetamorphose in Amphibolite der Epidot-Amphibolit-und der unteren Amphibolitfazies umgewandelt.Die Wechsellagerung der höher metamorphen Amphibolite, die Labrodor und Bytownit enthalten, mit Peridotit weist darauf hin, daß sie früher gebänderter Gabbro waren. Diese Wechsellagerung zeigt, einen gemeinsamen Ursprung an. Die Beziehungen zwischen Bänderung und Schieferung geben sowohl in den Amphiboliten wie in den Ultramafiten starke Hinweise über den Charakter der Strömungsprozesse.

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With 14 Figures     

Porphyroclast systems as kinematic indicators

Porphyroclasts of relatively strong minerals in mylonites commonly have an internal monoclinic shape symmetry defined by tails of dynamically recrystallized material. The geometry of a porphyroclast and its tails, called a ‘porhyroclast system’, can serve as a valuable indicator of the sense of vorticity. Porphyroclast systems have been divided into σ- and δ-types on the basis of the geometry of the tails. σ-Types have wedge-shaped recrystallized tails whose median lines lie on opposite sides of a reference plane parallel to the tails and containing the symmetry axis for the system. σ-Types are further subdivided into a σ_a-types, in which the porphyroclast is isolated in a relatively homogeneous matrix, and σ_b-types, in which the porphyroclast system is associated with a shear band foliation in the matrix. δ-Types typically have narrow recrystallized tails whose median lines cross the reference plane adjacent to the porphyroclast. Consequently, embayments of matrix material occur adjacent to the porphyroclasts and the tails display characteristic bends.A porphyroclast system in a mylonite develops when the relatively weak dynamically recrystallized grain aggregate in the porphyroclast mantle changes its shape due to non-coaxial flow in the adjacent matrix. This behaviour has been modelled in shear box experiments. Passive marker lines around rigid cylinders embedded in silicone putty were subjected to simple shear. The experiments were modified to simulate a change in recrystallization rate (R) with respect to rate of deformation (γ) by decreasing the diameter of the rigid cylinder during deformation at variable rates. The ratio R/γ appears to be one of the most important factors in determining which porphyroclast system will develop. At high R/γ values, flow of recrystallized material away from the porphyroclast is continuously appended by the production of new grains and wedge-shaped σ_a-type tails develop. At low R/γ values, relatively few new grains are added to the tails which become thinned and deflected by drag due to the spinning motion of the porphyroclast. In addition, most porphyroclast systems at low shear strains are of σ_a-type or lack monoclinic symmetry, whereas δ-types are only developed at high shear strain values. Complex porphyroclast systems, characterized by two generations of tails, are observed in many of the natural and model shear zones studied and may form due to fluctuating R/γ. Conditions that allow isolated σ_a- and δ-type porphyroclast systems to be used as sense of vorticity indicators are: the systems should have a monoclinic shape symmetry; matrix grain size should be small with respect to porphyroclast size; matrix fabric should be homogeneous; deformation history should be simple, and observations should be made on sections normal to the inferred bulk vorticity vector for the mylonite.     

First-order rupture features of the 2011 MW 9.0 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake from surface waves

This study analyzed the rupture directivity of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake by using 100-s Rayleigh-wave travel-times, influenced by the finite source, to derive the fault parameters of the earthquake. The results demonstrated that the earthquake exhibited a slow rupture propagation with a rupture velocity of approximately 1.5–2.0 km/s and asymmetric bilateral faulting. The two rupture directions were N60°E and N127°E, with rupture lengths of approximately 276 km and 231 km, respectively. The rupture toward N60°E had a source duration of approximately 183 s, longer than that toward N127°E (approximately 156 s). Overall, the entire source duration of the earthquake faulting lasted approximately 183 s. Regarding historical seismicity in eastern Japan, the 2011 Tohoku earthquake not only ruptured a locked area in which large earthquakes have rarely occurred, but also ruptured the source regions of several historical earthquakes. With the exception of its slow rupture velocity and generation of a tsunami, the rupture features of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake were inconsistent with those of typical tsunami earthquakes.     

Estimation of the variation in apparent displacement along normal fault traces refracted by differential compaction

Initially planar fault surfaces can be refracted by differential compaction, sudden changes in the displacement gradient taking place at the contact of different lithologies. As a result, the original displacement pattern, e.g. a cone-type in an idealized case, can be changed into a zigzag-type, especially when the initial dip angle of the fault and differential compaction are high. Compared with pre- and syn-faulting compaction, post-faulting compaction is more likely to change the initial displacement pattern along normal faults which were active near the sediment surface. Based upon the assumption that compaction is homogeneous vertical strain, the original fault geometry and displacement pattern can be estimated by means of decompaction and related geometric calculations.