Gravel‐bed river evolution in earthquake‐prone regions subject to cycled hydrographs and repeated sediment pulses

Sediment often enters rivers in the form of sediment pulses associated with landslides and debris flows. This is particularly so in gravel‐bed rivers in earthquake‐prone mountain regions, such as Southwest China. Under such circumstances, sediment pulses can rapidly change river topography and leave the river in repeated states of gradual recovery. In this paper, we implement a one‐dimensional morphodynamic model of river response to pulsed sediment supply. The model is validated using data from flume experiments, so demonstrating that it can successfully reproduce the overall morphodynamics of experimental pulses. The model is then used to explore the evolution of a gravel‐bed river subject to cycled hydrographs and repeated sediment pulses. These pulses are fed into the channel in a fixed region centered at a point halfway down the calculational domain. The pulsed sediment supply is in addition to a constant sediment supply at the upstream end. Results indicate that the river can reach a mobile‐bed equilibrium in which two regions exist within which bed elevation and surface grain size distribution vary periodically in time. One of these is at the upstream end, where a periodic discharge hydrograph and constant sediment supply are imposed, and the other is in a region about halfway down the channel where periodic sediment pulses are introduced. Outside these two regions, bed elevation and surface grain size distribution reach a mobile‐bed equilibrium that is invariant in time. The zone of fluctuation‐free mobile‐bed equilibrium upstream of the pulse region is not affected by repeated sediment pulses under the scenarios tested, but downstream of the pulse region, the channel reaches different fluctuation‐free mobile‐bed equilibriums under different sediment pulse scenarios. The vertical bed structure predicted by the simulations indicates that the cyclic variation associated with the hydrograph and sediment pulses can affect the substrate stratigraphy to some depth. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling the effects of pulsed versus chronic sand inputs on salmonid spawning habitat in a low‐gradient gravel‐bed river

It is widely recognized that high supplies of fine sediment, largely sand, can negatively impact the aquatic habitat quality of gravel‐bed rivers, but effects of the style of input (chronic vs. pulsed) have not been examined quantitatively. We hypothesize that a continuous (i.e. chronic) supply of sand will be more detrimental to the quality of aquatic habitat than an instantaneous sand pulse equal to the integrated volume of the chronic supply. We investigate this issue by applying a two‐dimensional numerical model to a 1 km long reach of prime salmonid spawning habitat in central Idaho. Results show that in both supply scenarios, sand moves through the study reach as bed load, and that both the movement and depth of sand on the streambed mirrors the hydrograph of this snowmelt‐dominated river. Predictions indicate greater and more persistent mortality of salmonid embryos under chronic supplies than pulse inputs, supporting our hypothesis. However, predicted mortality varies both with salmonid species and location of spawning. We found that the greatest impacts occur closer to the location of the sand input under both supply scenarios. Results also suggest that reach‐scale morphology may modulate the impact of sand loads, and that under conditions of high sand loading climate‐related increases in flow magnitude could increase embryo mortality through sand deposition, rather than streambed scour. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial and temporal analysis of hillslope–channel coupling and implications for the longitudinal profile in a dryland basin

The long‐term evolution of channel longitudinal profiles within drainage basins is partly determined by the relative balance of hillslope sediment supply to channels and the evacuation of channel sediment. However, the lack of theoretical understanding of the physical processes of hillslope–channel coupling makes it challenging to determine whether hillslope sediment supply or channel sediment evacuation dominates over different timescales and how this balance affects bed elevation locally along the longitudinal profile. In this paper, we develop a framework for inferring the relative dominance of hillslope sediment supply to the channel versus channel sediment evacuation, over a range of temporal and spatial scales. The framework combines distinct local flow distributions on hillslopes and in the channel with surface grain‐size distributions. We use these to compute local hydraulic stresses at various hillslope‐channel coupling locations within the Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed (WGEW) in southeast Arizona, USA. These stresses are then assessed as a local net balance of geomorphic work between hillslopes and channel for a range of flow conditions generalizing decadal historical records. Our analysis reveals that, although the magnitude of hydraulic stress in the channel is consistently higher than that on hillslopes, the product of stress magnitude and frequency results in a close balance between hillslope supply and channel evacuation for the most frequent flows. Only at less frequent, high‐magnitude flows do channel hydraulic stresses exceed those on hillslopes, and channel evacuation dominates the net balance. This result suggests that WGEW exists mostly (~50% of the time) in an equilibrium condition of sediment balance between hillslopes and channels, which helps to explain the observed straight longitudinal profile. We illustrate how this balance can be upset by climate changes that differentially affect relative flow regimes on slopes and in channels. Such changes can push the long profile into a convex or concave condition. © 2018 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Lithological controls on hillslope sediment supply: insights from landslide activity and grain size distributions

The volumes, rates and grain size distributions of sediment supplied from hillslopes represent the initial input of sediment delivered from upland areas and propagated through sediment routing systems. Moreover, hillslope sediment supply has a significant impact on landscape response time to tectonic and climatic perturbations. However, there are very few detailed field studies characterizing hillslope sediment supply as a function of lithology and delivery process. Here, we present new empirical data from tectonically‐active areas in southern Italy that quantifies how lithology and rock strength control the landslide fluxes and grain size distributions supplied from hillslopes. Landslides are the major source of hillslope sediment supply in this area, and our inventory of ~2800 landslides reveals that landslide sediment flux is dominated by small, shallow landslides. We find that lithology and rock strength modulate the abundance of steep slopes and landslides, and the distribution of landslide sizes. Outcrop‐scale rock strength also controls the grain sizes supplied by bedrock weathering, and influences the degree of coarsening of landslide supply with respect to weathering supply. Finally, we show that hillslope sediment supply largely determines the grain sizes of fluvial export, from catchments and that catchments with greater long‐term landslide rates deliver coarser material. Therefore, our results demonstrate a dual control of lithology on hillslope sediment supply, by modulating both the sediment fluxes from landslides and the grain sizes supplied by hillslopes to the fluvial system. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Surface particle sizes on armoured gravel streambeds: effects of supply and hydraulics

Most gravel‐bed streams exhibit a surface armour in which the median grain size of the surface particles is coarser than that of the subsurface particles. This armour has been interpreted to result when the supply of sediment is less than the ability of the stream to move sediment. While there may be certain sizes in the bed for which the supply is less than the ability of the stream to transport these sizes, for other sizes of particles the supply may match or even exceed the ability of the channel to transport these particles. These sizes of particles are called ‘supply‐limited’ and ‘hydraulically limited’ in their transport, respectively, and can be differentiated in dimensionless sediment transport rating curves by size fractions. The supply‐ and hydraulically limited sizes can be distinguished also by comparing the size of particles of the surface and subsurface. Those sizes that are supply‐limited are winnowed from the bed and are under‐represented in the surface layer. Progressive truncation of the surface and subsurface size distributions from the ?ne end and recalculation until the size distributions are similar (collapse), establishes the break between supply‐ and hydraulically limited sizes. At sites along 12 streams in Idaho ranging in drainage area from about 100 to 4900 km², sediment transport rating curves by size class and surface and subsurface size distributions were examined. The break between sizes that were supply‐ and hydraulically limited as determined by examination of the transport rate and surface and subsurface size distributions was similar. The collapse size as described by its percentile in the cumulative size distribution averaged D₃₆ of the surface and D₇₃ of the subsurface. The discharge at which the collapse size began to move averaged 88 per cent of bankfull discharge. The collapse size decreased as bed load yield increased and increased with the degree of selective transport. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Downstream fining in contrasting reaches of the sand‐bedded Yellow River

Compared to downstream fining of a gravel‐bedded river, little field evidence exists to support the process of downstream fining in large, fine sand‐bedded rivers. In fact, the typically unimodal bed sediments of these rivers are thought to produce equal mobility of coarse and fine grains that may discourage downstream fining. To investigate this topic, we drilled 200 sediment cores in the channel beds of two fine‐grained sand‐bedded reaches of the Yellow River (a desert reach and a lower reach) and identified a fine surface layer (FSL) developed over a coarse subsurface layer (CSL) in the 3‐m‐thick bed deposits. In both reaches downstream, the thickness of the FSL increased, while that of the CSL decreased. Comparison of the depth‐averaged median grain sizes of the CSL and the FSL separately in both reaches shows a distinct downstream fining dependence to the median grain size, which indicates that at a large scale of 600‐800 km, the CSL shows a significant downstream fining, but the FSL shows no significant trends in downstream variations in grain size. This result shows that fine sediment supply (<0·08 mm median grain size) from upstream, combined with lateral fine sediment inputs from tributaries and bank erosion, can cause a rapid fining of the downstream channel bed surface and can develop the FSL layer. However, in the desert reach, lateral coarse sediment supply (>0·08 mm median grain size) from wind‐borne sediments and cross‐desert tributaries can interrupt the FSL and coarsen the channel bed surface locally. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

River response to channel regulation: Case study of the Raba river,Carpathians, Poland

Processes induced by the channelization of the Raba River in the present century are examined to illustrate the response of a gravel-bed stream following narrowing and straightening of its channel. Up to 3 m of incision has occurred. The change from a slow and relatively steady degradation in the lower reaches to separate degradation events in the higher reaches is attributed to the differential rate of headcut retreat and to the control exerted by mid-channel bars upon the rate of river-energy dissipation. Progressive outwashing of finer grains from bed material has followed the diminishing sediment yield of the basin and the increase in stream power. The ensuing growth in mean grain size and changes in sediment fabric have increased boundary resistance to flow and reduced particle susceptibility to entrainment. Downstream magnification of peak discharges has become increasingly pronounced with the advancing incision. The decrease in flood-plain storage and self-acceleration of flows passing the relatively deep and straight channel has caused flood waves to become progressively more flashy in nature. An increase in channel depth and reduction in gradient caused by downward and backward erosion, as well as bed material coarsening has promoted the re-establishment of an equilibrium. Conversely, flow velocity increases due to flow concentration in the deepened channel. Reduction in grain mobility allows the river to attain a new equilibrium at flow-velocity and stream-power levels higher than before the channelization. Numerous disadvantages of the applied regulation scheme and its failure to reduce flood hazard raise the question of its maintenance. To be successful, any regulation design must take into account changes in sediment supply and flood hydrographs resulting from the simultaneous alterations in basin management.     

Patterns of grain‐size dependent sediment transport in low‐ordered,ephemeral channels

Sediment data were analyzed to determine grain‐size dependant factors affecting sediment transport in a low‐ordered, ephemeral watershed. Sediment and flow samples were collected during 22 flow events at the outlet of a 4·53 ha sub‐watershed within the Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed in south‐eastern Arizona. Measured concentrations ranged from 4191 to 115 045 mg l^?1 and included grain sizes up to 8·0 mm in diameter. Two grain‐size dependent transport patterns were observed, that of the finer grain‐size fraction (approximately < 0·25 mm) and that of a coarser grain‐size fraction (approximately ≥ 0·25 mm). The concentration of the fine fraction decreased with flow duration, peaking near the beginning of a flow event and declining thereafter. The concentration of the fine fraction showed slight trends with season and recovery period. The concentration of the coarse fraction displayed a slight negative trend with instantaneous discharge and was not correlated with event duration. These patterns typically produced a condition where the majority of the fine fraction of the sediment yield was evacuated out of the watershed before the hydrograph peak while the majority of the coarser sediment was evacuated during the falling limb of the hydrograph. Each grain‐size dependent transport pattern was likely influenced by the source of the associated sediment. At the flow event time scale, the fines were primarily wash load, supplied from the hillslopes and the coarser grains were entrained from the channel bed. Because transport patterns differ based on grain size, attempts to define the total sediment concentration and sediment yield by the behavior of a single grain‐size fraction may lead to erroneous results, especially when a large range of sediment grain sizes are present. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of sediment supply on the channel morphology of upland streams: Howgill Fells,Northwest England

Previous work on stream channels in upland areas of Britain has demonstrated a close control over channel morphology and stability by the rate of coarse sediment supply from the hillslopes of the catchment. Streams fed by large amounts of coarse sediment develop unstable, wide, often braided channels, whereas those with limited coarse sediment supply develop stable, much narrower, often meandering channels. The sediment supply from hillslopes is controlled by thresholds of hillslope stability, storm event frequency, and the coupling between the hillslopes and the channel. Climatically-induced changes in any of these three factors may have implications for channel morphology and stability. This paper examines these implications in British upland fluvial systems, with particular reference to the Howgill Fells, Cumbria, in the contexts of the adjustment of stream channels to sediment supply from erosional gully systems, and their response to and recovery from major flood events.     

Effect of storms during drought on post‐wildfire recovery of channel sediment dynamics and habitat in the southern California chaparral,USA

Current global warming projections suggest a possible increase in wildfire and drought, augmenting the need to understand how drought following wildfire affects the recovery of stream channels in relation to sediment dynamics. We investigated post‐wildfire geomorphic responses caused by storms during a prolonged drought following the 2013 Springs Fire in southern California (USA), using multi‐temporal terrestrial laser scanning and detailed field measurements. After the fire, a dry‐season dry‐ravel sediment pulse contributed sand and small gravel to hillslope‐channel margins in Big Sycamore Creek and its tributaries. A small storm in WY 2014 generated sufficient flow to mobilize a portion of the sediment derived from the dry‐ravel pulse and deposited the fine sediment in the channel, totaling ~0.60 m³/m of volume per unit length of channel. The sediment deposit buried step‐pool habitat structure and reduced roughness by over 90%. These changes altered sediment transport characteristics of the bed material present before and after the storm; the ratio of available to critical shear stress (τ_o/τ_c) increased by five times. Storms during WY 2015 contributed additional fine sediment from tributaries and lower hillslopes and hyperconcentrated flow transported and deposited additional sediment in the channel. Together these sources delivered sediment on the order of six times that in 2014, further increasing τ_o/τ_c. These storms during multi‐year drought following wildfire transformed channel dynamics. The increased sediment transport capacity persisted during the drought period characterized by the longer residence time of relatively fine‐grained post‐fire channel sedimentation. This contrasts with wetter years, when post‐fire sediment is transported from the fluvial system during the same season as the post‐fire sediment pulse. Results of this short‐term study highlight the complex and substantial effects of multi‐year drought on geomorphic responses following wildfire. These responses influence pool habitat that is critical to longer‐term post‐wildfire riparian ecosystem recovery. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Channel response to an extreme flood and sediment pulse in a mixed bedrock and gravel‐bed river

We exploit a natural experiment caused by an extreme flood (~500 year recurrence interval) and sediment pulse derived from more than 2500 concurrent landslides to explore the influence of valley‐scale geomorphic controls on sediment slug evolution and the impact of sediment pulse passage and slug deposition and dispersion on channel stability and channel form. Sediment slug movement is a crucial process that shapes gravel‐bed rivers and alluvial valleys and is an important mechanism of downstream bed material transport. Further, increased bed material transport rates during slug deposition can trigger channel responses including increases in lateral mobility, channel width, and alluvial bar dominance. Pre‐ and post‐flood LiDAR and aerial photographs bracketing the 2007 flood on the Chehalis River in south‐western Washington State, USA, document the channel response with high spatial and temporal definition. The sediment slug behaved as a Gilbert Wave, with both channel aggradation and sequestration of large volumes of material in floodplains of headwaters' reaches and reaches where confined valleys enter into broad alluvial valleys. Differences between the valley form of two separate sub‐basins impacted by the pulse highlight the important role channel and channel‐floodplain connectivity play in governing downstream movement of sediment slug material. Finally, channel response to the extreme flood and sediment pulse illustrate the connection between bed material transport and channel form. Specifically, the channel widened, lateral channel mobility increased, and the proportion of the active channel covered by bars increased in all reaches in the study area. The response scaled tightly with the relative amount of bed material sediment transport through individual reaches, indicating that the amount of morphological change caused by the flood was conditioned by the simultaneous introduction of a sediment pulse to the channel network. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Persistence of the surface texture of a gravel‐bed river during a large flood

We present herein clear field evidence for the persistence of a coarse surface layer in a gravel‐bed river during flows capable of transporting all grain sizes present on the channel bed. Detailed field measurements of channel topography and bed surface grain size were made in a gravel‐bed reach of the Colorado River prior to a flood in 2003. Runoff produced during the 2003 snowmelt was far above average, resulting in a sustained period of high flow with a peak discharge of 27 m³/s (170% of normal peak flow); all available grain sizes within the study reach were mobilized in this period of time. During the 2003 peak flow, the river avulsed immediately upstream of the study reach, thereby abandoning approximately one half kilometer of the former channel. The abandonment was rapid (probably within a few hours), leaving the bed texture essentially frozen in place at the peak of the flood. All locations sampled prior to the flood were resampled following the stream abandonment. In response to the high flow, the surface median grain size (D_50s) coarsened slightly in the outer part of the bend while remaining nearly constant along the inner part of the bend, resulting in an overall increase from 18 to 21 mm for the study reach. Thus, the coarse bed surface texture persisted despite shear stresses throughout the bend that were well above the critical entrainment value. This may be explained because the response of the bed texture to increases in flow strength depends primarily upon the continued availability of the various grain size percentiles in the supply, which in this case was essentially unlimited for all sizes present in the channel. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of chronic and episodic disturbances on channel–hillslope coupling: the persistence and legacy of extreme floods

Landscape form represents the cumulative effects of de‐stabilizing events relative to recovery processes. Most geomorphic research has focused on the role of episodic rare events on landscape form with less attention paid to the role and persistence of chronic inputs. To better establish the interplay between chronic and episodic extreme events at regional scales, we used aerial photography and post‐flood sediment sampling to assess stream and hillslope response and recovery to a 100–300 yr. flood caused by Tropical Storm Irene in New England. Within a 14 000 km² study area, analysis of aerial photographs indicated that the storm initiated (n = 534) and reactivated (n = 460) a large number of landslides. These landslides dramatically increased overall estimates of regional erosion rates (from 0.0023 mm/yr. without Irene to 0.0072 mm/yr. with Irene). Similarly, Irene‐generated LWD inputs of 0.25–0.5 trees/km exceeded annual background rates in a single event, and these concentrated inputs (10¹–10² of trees/landslide) are likely to result in large jams and snags that are particularly persistent and geomorphically effective. Finally, we found that landslide scars continue to provide elevated sediment inputs years after the event, as evidenced by sustained higher suspended sediment concentrations in streams with Irene‐generated landslides. Overall, our results indicate that infrequent, high‐magnitude events have a more important geomorphic role in tectonically stable, more moderate‐relief systems than has been previously recognized. Understanding the role of these events has particular relevance in regions such as New England, where the frequency and magnitude of extreme storms is expected to increase. Further, these effects may force reconsideration of conservation and restoration targets (for example in channel form and large wood loading and distribution) in fluvial systems. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Network‐scale dynamics of grain‐size sorting: implications for downstream fining,stream‐profile concavity,and drainage basin morphology

We explore the link between channel‐bed texture and river basin concavity in equilibrium catchments using a numerical landscape evolution model. Theory from homogeneous sediment transport predicts that river basin concavity directly increases with bed sediment size. If the effective grain size on a river bed governs its concavity, then natural phenomena such as grain‐size sorting and channel armouring should be linked to concavity. We examine this hypothesis by allowing the bed sediment texture to evolve in a transport‐limited regime using a two grain‐size mixture of sand and gravel. Downstream ?ning through selective particle erosion is produced in equilibrium. As the channel‐bed texture adjusts downstream so does the local slope. Our model predicts that it is not the texture of the original sediment mixture that governs basin concavity. Rather, concavity is linked to the texture of the sorted surface layer. Two different textural regimes are produced in the experiments: a transitional regime where the mobility of sand and gravel changes with channel‐bed texture, and a sand‐dominated region where the mobility of sand and gravel is constant. The concavity of these regions varies depending on the median gravel‐ or sand‐grain size, erosion rate, and precipitation rate. The results highlight the importance of adjustments in both surface texture and slope in natural rivers in response to changes in ?uvial and sediment inputs throughout a drainage network. This adjustment can only be captured numerically using multiple grain sizes or empirical downstream ?ning rules. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adjustments in channel morphology due to land‐use changes and check dam installation in mountain torrents of Calabria (southern Italy)

In Mediterranean semi‐arid conditions, the availability of studies monitoring channel adjustments as a response to reforestation and check dams over representative observation periods, could help develop new management strategies. This investigation is an integrated approach assessing the adjustments of channel morphology in a typical torrent of southern Italy after land‐use changes and check dam construction across a period of about 60 years. A statistical analysis of historical rainfall records, an analysis of land‐use changes in the catchment area and a geomorphological mapping of channel adjustments were carried out and combined with field surveys of bed surface grain‐size over a 5‐km reach including 14 check dams. The analysis of the historical rainfall records showed a slight decrease in the amount and erosivity of precipitation. Mapping of land‐use changes highlighted a general increase of vegetal coverage on the slopes adjacent to the monitored reaches. Together with the check dam network installation, this increase could have induced a reduction in water and sediment supply. The different erosional and depositional forms and adjustments showed a general narrowing between consecutive check dams together with local modifications detected upstream (bed aggradation and cross‐section expansion together with low‐flow realignments) and downstream (local incision) of the installed check dams. Changes in the torrent bends were also detected as a response to erosional and depositional processes with different intensities. The study highlighted: the efficiency of check dams against the disrupting power of intense floods by stabilizing the active channel and the influence of reforestation in increasing hillslope protection from erosion and disconnectivity of water and sediment flows towards the active channel. Only slight management interventions (for instance, the conversion of the existing check dams into open structures) are suggested, in order to mobilize the residual sediment avoiding further generalized incision of the active channel and coast line erosion. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of incoming sediment on the transport rate of bed load in mountain streams

Field experiments were conducted on bed load transport in the Diaoga River, a mountain stream in southwest China, to study the variation of bed load transport with varying sediment supply. The rate of bed load transport is greatly affected by incoming sediment （load and size）. Under the same flow conditions, bed load transport rates may differ by three orders of magnitude depending on whether measurements were taken before or after the first flood of the year. The relation of the ＂bed load transport rate versus flow intensity＂ appears to have similar characteristics as a clockwise looped-rating curve. Experiments also were conducted during the non-flood season to study bed load transport processes with different incoming load from an upstream section. Bed load with different sizes can be grouped into two types： traveling bed load and structural bed load. Traveling bed load is composed of sediment finer than a critical size, De, and its transport rate depends mainly on the incoming sediment rate. The incoming sediment rate can alter the rate of bed load transport by three orders of magnitude. Structural bed load is composed of coarser sediment and its transport rate closely relies on the flow intensity.     

Width control on event-scale deposition and evacuation of sediment in bedrock-confined channels

In mixed bedrock–alluvial rivers, the response of the system to a flood event can be affected by a number of factors, including coarse sediment availability in the channel, sediment supply from the hillslopes and upstream, flood sequencing and coarse sediment grain size distribution. However, the impact of along-stream changes in channel width on bedload transport dynamics remains largely unexplored. We combine field data, theory and numerical modelling to address this gap. First, we present observations from the Daan River gorge in western Taiwan, where the river flows through a 1 km long 20–50 m wide bedrock gorge bounded upstream and downstream by wide braidplains. We documented two flood events during which coarse sediment evacuation and redeposition appear to cause changes of up to several metres in channel bed elevation. Motivated by this case study, we examined the relationships between discharge, channel width and bedload transport capacity, and show that for a given slope narrow channels transport bedload more efficiently than wide ones at low discharges, whereas wider channels are more efficient at high discharges. We used the model sedFlow to explore this effect, running a random sequence of floods through a channel with a narrow gorge section bounded upstream and downstream by wider reaches. Channel response to imposed floods is complex, as high and low discharges drive different spatial patterns of erosion and deposition, and the channel may experience both of these regimes during the peak and recession periods of each flood. Our modelling suggests that width differences alone can drive substantial variations in sediment flux and bed response, without the need for variations in sediment supply or mobility. The fluctuations in sediment transport rates that result from width variations can lead to intermittent bed exposure, driving incision in different segments of the channel during different portions of the hydrograph. © 2020 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd     

Observations of bedload transport in a gravel bed river during high flow using fiber‐optic DTS methods

The question: ‘how does a streambed change over a minor flood?’ does not have a clear answer due to lack of measurement methods during high flows. We investigate bedload transport and disentrainment during a 1.5‐year flood by linking field measurements using fiber optic distributed temperature sensing (DTS) cable with sediment transport theory and an existing explicit analytical solution to predict depth of sediment deposition from amplitude and phase changes of the diurnal near‐bed pore‐water temperature. The method facilitates the study of gravel transport by using near‐bed temperature time series to estimate rates of sediment deposition continuously over the duration of a high flow event coinciding with bar formation. The observations indicate that all gravel and cobble particles present were transported along the riffle at a relatively low Shields Number for the median particle size, and were re‐deposited on the lee side of the bar at rates that varied over time during a constant flow. Approximately 1–6% of the bed was predicted to be mobile during the 1.5‐year flood, indicating that large inactive regions of the bed, particularly between riffles, persist between years despite field observations of narrow zones of local transport and bar growth on the order ~3–5 times the median particle size. In contrast, during a seven‐year flood approximately 8–55% of the bed was predicted to become mobile, indicating that the continuous along‐stream mobility required to mobilize coarse gravel through long pools and downstream to the next riffle is infrequent. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Forest fire,bank strength and channel instability: the ‘unusual’ response of Fishtrap Creek,British Columbia

In August 2003, the McLure forest fire burned 62% of the drainage basin of Fishtrap Creek. Streamflow has been measured there since the early 1970s, and suspended sediment concentration and channel morphology have been monitored since the fire. Although the short post‐fire period (four years) limits our ability to draw firm conclusions about streamflow changes, there has been no obvious increase in peak flows since the fire. However, the total runoff during the freshet period does appear to have increased and the onset of snowmelt appears to occur about two weeks earlier than it did prior to the fire. Suspended sediment records from Fishtrap Creek and from an unburnt reference stream nearby are similar, suggesting that the burnt areas have remained relatively stable and that the sediment supply to Fishtrap Creek has not been dramatically altered. In contrast, the stream channel morphology has changed, widening by over 100% of the original width in some places and transforming from a laterally stable plane‐bed morphology to a laterally active riffle‐pool morphology. The timing and magnitude of the observed morphologic changes are consistent with the predicted decline in bank strength due to root decay, implying that the observed changes are associated with an internal instability associated with changes to the stream boundaries, rather than with the more typically reported externally driven instabilities caused by changes in streamflow or sediment supply. This delayed response in the absence of large changes in streamflow or sediment supply, while ‘unusual’ in that it has not been documented in the previous literature, may be a common mode of response, particularly in wat'ersheds with nival flow regimes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lithological and fluvial controls on the geomorphology of tropical montane stream channels in Puerto Rico

An extensive survey and topographic analysis of five watersheds draining the Luquillo Mountains in north‐eastern Puerto Rico was conducted to decouple the relative influences of lithologic and hydraulic forces in shaping the morphology of tropical montane stream channels. The Luquillo Mountains are a steep landscape composed of volcaniclastic and igneous rocks that exert a localized lithologic influence on the stream channels. However, the stream channels also experience strong hydraulic forcing due to high unit discharge in the humid rainforest environment. GIS‐based topographic analysis was used to examine channel profiles, and survey data were used to analyze downstream changes in channel geometry, grain sizes, stream power, and shear stresses. Results indicate that the longitudinal profiles are generally well graded but have concavities that reflect the influence of multiple rock types and colluvial‐alluvial transitions. Non‐fluvial processes, such as landslides, deliver coarse boulder‐sized sediment to the channels and may locally determine channel gradient and geometry. Median grain size is strongly related to drainage area and slope, and coarsens in the headwaters before fining in the downstream reaches; a pattern associated with a mid‐basin transition between colluvial and fluvial processes. Downstream hydraulic geometry relationships between discharge, width and velocity (although not depth) are well developed for all watersheds. Stream power displays a mid‐basin maximum in all basins, although the ratio of stream power to coarse grain size (indicative of hydraulic forcing) increases downstream. Excess dimensionless shear stress at bankfull flow wavers around the threshold for sediment mobility of the median grain size, and does not vary systematically with bankfull discharge; a common characteristic in self‐forming ‘threshold’ alluvial channels. The results suggest that although there is apparent bedrock and lithologic control on local reach‐scale channel morphology, strong fluvial forces acting over time have been sufficient to override boundary resistance and give rise to systematic basin‐scale patterns. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.