Monitoring CO2 saturation using time‐lapse amplitude versus offset analysis of 3D seismic data from the Ketzin CO2 storage pilot site,Germany

The injection of CO₂ at the Ketzin pilot site commenced in June 2008 and was terminated in August 2013 after 67 kT had been injected into a saline formation at a depth of 630–650 m. As part of the site monitoring program, four 3D surface seismic surveys have been acquired to date, one baseline and three repeats, of which two were conducted during the injection period, and one during the post‐injection phase. The surveys have provided the most comprehensive images of the spreading CO₂ plume within the reservoir layer. Both petrophysical experiments on core samples from the Ketzin reservoir and spectral decomposition of the 3D time‐lapse seismic data show that the reservoir pore pressure change due to CO₂ injection has a rather minor impact on the seismic amplitudes. Therefore, the observed amplitude anomaly is interpreted to be mainly due to CO₂ saturation. In this study, amplitude versus offset analysis has been applied to investigate the amplitude versus offset response from the top of the sandstone reservoir during the injection and post‐injection phases, and utilize it to obtain a more quantitative assessment of the CO₂ gaseous saturation changes. Based on the amplitude versus offset modelling, a prominent decrease in the intercept values imaged at the top of the reservoir around the injection well is indeed associated solely with the CO₂ saturation increase. Any change in the gradient values, which would, in case it was positive, be the only signature induced by the reservoir pressure variations, has not been observed. The amplitude versus offset intercept change is, therefore, entirely ascribed to CO₂ saturation and used for its quantitative assessment. The estimated CO₂ saturation values around the injection area in the range of 40%–60% are similar to those obtained earlier from pulsed neutron‐gamma logging. The highest values of 80% are found in the second seismic repeat in close vicinity to the injection and observation wells.     

三维/三维构造下大地电磁相位张量数值模拟

当地表存在三维非均匀电导率分布时,区域大地电磁响应发生畸变. 以往对这种畸变研究多假设近地表为三维,区域构造为一维或二维. 对于更一般的三维/三维构造,为了分析并消除这种畸变影响,真实反映地下三维区域构造信息,本文实现了三维大地电磁相位张量积分方程数值算法,并研究在不同地质模型下相位张量响应. 结果表明,相位张量不仅可以反映一般三维构造信息,亦可有效反映复杂近地表构造下三维区域构造信息,而无须假设区域构造为一维或二维,证明相位张量具有较强抗近地表局部非均匀构造干扰能力,能够保持更为一般的三维区域构造信息. 为了加快正演计算,同时保持一定精度,算法采用了积分方程多网格法.     

三维泊松方程数值模拟的多重网格方法

本文简要介绍了多重网格方法的基本思想和原理,然后应用多重网格(MG)方法求解三维泊松方程,网格尺度从17×17×17逐次增加至257×257×257,并与不完全Chelesky共轭梯度法(ICCG)、Gauss直接解法进行比较,结果表明,MG方法计算速度明显优于ICCG、Gauss方法,对于129×129×129网格的三维数值模拟费时43s,比ICCG法快7倍,而对于257×257×257超大型网格的三维数值模拟也仅需412s.     

Shaking table 2‐D models of a concrete gravity dam

One of the most famous and studied cases of dams subjected to earthquake loading is the Koyna Dam in India. In this study, a two‐dimensional model of Koyna Dam at 1/50 scale was used on a shake table to simulate effects and serve as data for non‐linear computer model calibration. A new concrete mix was designed for the non‐linear similitude modelling. This new mix provided the correct kinematic failure of concrete at scale. Two models were tested to failure: one with an initial shrinkage crack and one monolith. Reservoir effects were not modelled. The results of both models are discussed and compared. The ability to model non‐linear effects is discussed. Published in 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

3D3C陆地反射PS转换波CMP成像影响因素分析

三维三分量(3D3C)陆地反射PS转换波共中心点(CMP)叠加成像方法,虽然抽道集简单,但是对实际资料处理结果往往不理想.尤其当反射界面为三维倾斜界面时,其成像质量较差.本文提出有三个主要因素影响其成像质量:第一,转换点离散.运用实例计算得出,转换点离散度随着纵横波速度比、偏移距和界面倾角的增大而增大.相同界面倾角,不同测线方位的转换点离散度不同,视倾角的绝对值越大离散度也越大;第二,道集内静校正量差异增大.CMP道集中,由于转换点离散使得转换点横向跨度较大,经倾斜界面反射转换的S波出射到近地表地层时的角度差异也较大,导致静校突出;第三,加大动校叠加复杂性.三维倾斜界面PS波CMP道集近炮检距时距方程可表示为双曲形式,但是曲线的顶点位置和动校速度同时随测线方位变化,使得CMP道集同相轴很难校平,动校叠加过程很复杂.     

3D3C陆地反射PS转换波CMP成像影响因素分析

三维三分量(3D3C)陆地反射PS转换波共中心点(CMP)叠加成像方法,虽然抽道集简单,但是对实际资料处理结果往往不理想.尤其当反射界面为三维倾斜界面时,其成像质量较差.本文提出有三个主要因素影响其成像质量:第一,转换点离散.运用实例计算得出,转换点离散度随着纵横波速度比、偏移距和界面倾角的增大而增大.相同界面倾角,不同测线方位的转换点离散度不同,视倾角的绝对值越大离散度也越大;第二,道集内静校正量差异增大.CMP道集中,由于转换点离散使得转换点横向跨度较大,经倾斜界面反射转换的S波出射到近地表地层时的角度差异也较大,导致静校突出;第三,加大动校叠加复杂性.三维倾斜界面PS波CMP道集近炮检距时距方程可表示为双曲形式,但是曲线的顶点位置和动校速度同时随测线方位变化,使得CMP道集同相轴很难校平,动校叠加过程很复杂.     

3D multi-fractal analysis of porous media using 3D digital images: considerations for heterogeneity evaluation

Pore structure heterogeneity is a critical parameter controlling mechanical, electrical and flow transport behaviour of rock. Multi-fractal analysis method was used for a heterogeneity comparison of three-dimensional rock samples with different lithology. Six real digital samples, containing three sandstones and three carbonates, were used. Based on the mercury injection capillary pressure test on these samples, we found that the carbonate samples are more heterogeneous than sandstones, but primary results of multi-fractal behaviours for all samples were similar. We show that if multi-fractal is used to evaluate and compare heterogeneity of different samples, one needs to follow some considerations such as (1) all samples must have the same size in pixel, (2) samples volume must be bigger than representative volume element, (3) multi-fractal dimensions should be firstly normalized to a determined porosity value and (4) multi-fractal results should be interpreted based on resolution of the imaging tool (effects of fine scale sub-resolution pores are missed). Results revealed that using normalized fractal dimensions, the real samples were divided to less and high heterogeneous groups. Moreover, the study of scale effect also showed that porous structures of these samples are scale invariant in a wide range of scales (from one to eight times bigger).     

An efficient three‐dimensional solid finite element dynamic analysis of reinforced concrete structures

Most of the finite element analyses of reinforced concrete structures are restricted to two‐dimensional elements. Three‐dimensional solid elements have rarely been used although nearly all reinforced concrete structures are under a triaxial stress state. In this work, a three‐dimensional solid element based on a smeared fixed crack model that has been used in the past mainly for monotonic static loading analysis is extended to cater for dynamic analysis. The only material parameter that needs to be input for this model is the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete. Steel bars are modelled as uniaxial elements and an embedded formulation allows them to have any orientation inside the concrete elements. The proposed strategy for loading or unloading renders a numerical procedure which is stable and efficient. The whole process is applied to two RC frames and compared against existing experiments in the literature. Results show that the proposed approach may adequately be used to predict the dynamic response of a structure. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of continuous mass‐lumped finite elements with finite differences for 3‐D wave propagation

The finite‐difference method on rectangular meshes is widely used for time‐domain modelling of the wave equation. It is relatively easy to implement high‐order spatial discretization schemes and parallelization. Also, the method is computationally efficient. However, the use of finite elements on tetrahedral unstructured meshes is more accurate in complex geometries near sharp interfaces. We compared the standard eighth‐order finite‐difference method to fourth‐order continuous mass‐lumped finite elements in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The results show that, for simple models like a cube with constant density and velocity, the finite‐difference method outperforms the finite‐element method by at least an order of magnitude. Outside the application area of rectangular meshes, i.e., for a model with interior complexity and topography well described by tetrahedra, however, finite‐element methods are about two orders of magnitude faster than finite‐difference methods, for a given accuracy.     

Multistep inversion workflow for 3D long‐offset damped elastic waves in the Fourier domain

We present a new workflow for imaging damped three‐dimensional elastic wavefields in the Fourier domain. The workflow employs a multiscale imaging approach, in which offset lengths are laddered, where frequency content and damping of the data are changed cyclically. Thus, the inversion process is launched using short‐offset and low‐frequency data to recover the long spatial wavelength of the image at a shallow depth. Increasing frequency and offset length leads to the recovery of the fine‐scale features of the model at greater depths. For the fixed offset, we employ (in the imaging process) a few discrete frequencies with a set of Laplace damping parameters. The forward problem is solved with a finite‐difference frequency‐domain method based on a massively parallel iterative solver. The inversion code is based upon the solution of a least squares optimisation problem and is solved using a nonlinear gradient method. It is fully parallelised for distributed memory computational platforms. Our full‐waveform inversion workflow is applied to the 3D Marmousi‐2 and SEG/EAGE Salt models with long‐offset data. The maximum inverted frequencies are 6 Hz for the Marmousi model and 2 Hz for the SEG/EAGE Salt model. The detailed structures are imaged successfully up to the depth approximately equal to one‐third of the maximum offset length at a resolution consistent with the inverted frequencies.     

三维立体可视化震情会商系统平台设计与实现

随着政府和社会公众对建立现代震情会商系统的需求日益增强,本文尝试应用三维GIS技术和体绘制可视化方法,解决地震会商过程中的多源、海量地学数据的协同可视化问题.设计并实现了三维立体可视化会商系统平台,并在其上将汶川余震分布、数值模拟和华北精细地下三维速度结构等研究成果进行了集成测试.     

地震三维灾情影像图生成技术系统研究

本文将计算机技术、遥感技术、地理信息系统、图形图像处理相结合,建立三维矢量数学模型,通过三维可视化技术,形象化地描述灾区的受灾状况和受灾程度,对三维地理空间信息进行可视化管理,实现快速查询、检索、显示、输出、统计、分析及三维可视化,为基于地理信息的决策和管理提供一个真三维的立体可视平台,为地震应急决策部门进行灾害的决策和管理提供三维可视化仿真环境系统。     

在二维和三维CT图象重建理论方法的研究工作及新进展

本文主要介绍近几年清华大学工程物理系“粒子技术与辐射成象”国家专业实验室在二维和三维ＣＴ图象重建领域的研究成果，这些成果基本上代表了我国在核领域的研究水平。     

回线源瞬变电磁法有限体积三维任意各向异性正演及分析

目前,瞬变电磁法（TEM）数据基本都是基于各向同性模型进行反演解释,这对于存在明显电性各向异性的勘探区域会产生较大的反演解释误差.为分析电各向异性对回线源瞬变电磁信号的影响方式与程度,本文通过求解离散化的全张量电导率时间域Helmholtz方程,实现了基于有限体积法的TEM任意各向异性的三维正演算法.该算法采用基于交错网格的拟态有限体积法（MFV）对时域Maxwell方程组进行空间域离散,并利用后退欧拉算法（Backward Euler Method）进行时间域离散.为提高时域电磁场的求解精度与效率,该算法将时间分段等步长算法与方程直接求解法相结合.通过对一维各向异性模型以及三维复杂各向同性模型进行测试,验证了本算法对于回线源瞬变电磁响应计算的正确性及有效性.最后,通过对几类典型电各向异性介质中大回线源瞬变电磁信号响应的分析,总结了不同电各向异性类型对TEM电磁信号的影响模式,结果表明,主轴各向异性情况下TEM信号主要受水平方向电导率的影响,倾斜各向异性对TEM信号的影响程度远大于水平各向异性,而通过水平各向异性信号能较清晰判断出各向异性主轴方向.

     

RC pile–soil interaction analysis using a 3D‐finite element method with fibre theory‐based beam elements

To evaluate the overall response of a structural system including its foundation and surrounding soil, an equivalent finite element model with reduced degrees of freedom using fibre theory‐based beam element was proposed. The proposed model was based on investigations of the subgrade soil reaction of a single‐layer model, and was verified for the cyclic behaviour of a laterally loaded single RC pile in terms of the load–displacement relationship, pile deformation, and soil pressures on the pile surface. Also investigated was the effect of the interfacial element between pile and soil on the behaviour of the laterally loaded pile. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The use of 3D modeling for the prediction of the seismic demands on the gravity dams

Seismic behavior of gravity dams has long been evaluated using a representative two‐dimensional (2D) system. Formulated for the gravity dams built in wide canyons, the assumption is nevertheless utilized extensively for almost all concrete dams due to the established procedures as well as the expected computational costs of a three‐dimensional model. However, a significant number of roller‐compacted concrete dams, characterized as such systems, do not conform to the basic assumptions of these methods by violating the conditions on canyon dimensions and joint‐spacing/details. Based on the premise that the 2D modeling assumption is overstretched for practical purposes in a variety of settings, the purpose of this study is to critically evaluate the use of 2D modeling for the prediction of the seismic demands on these systems. Using a rigorous soil–structure interaction approach, the difference between the two and three‐dimensional response for gravity dams was investigated first in the frequency domain for a range of canyon widths and foundation to dam moduli ratios. Then, the time domain differences between the crest displacements and the maximum principal stress were obtained using 70 different ground motions in order to show the possible bias introduced into the analysis results due to the modeling approach. The results of the study show that even for relatively wide canyons, the 2D analysis can lead to misleading predictions. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

门源地区地壳三维体波速度结构及地震重定位研究

本文使用甘肃、青海数字地震台网及中国地震科学探测台阵记录到的门源地区地震的P波和S波到时资料,应用双差层析成像方法联合反演了该地区的地壳三维速度结构和震源位置参数.结合地质构造背景,研究了门源M_S6.4地震孕育发生的深部介质环境及该地区速度结构与地震活动性之间的关系.结果表明：反演之后地震的走时残差均方根显著降低,重定位后的地震在垂直方向上呈现出与断层位置有关的条带状分布.门源地区地壳速度结构存在明显的不均匀性,浅层P波和S波速度结构与地表地质构造及地形特征密切相关.研究区内地震活动性与地壳速度结构具有很强的对应关系,地震主要分布在高速异常区域及其边缘.门源M_S6.4地震震中附近的P波和S波速度结构表现出明显的高速异常,且在震源区下方存在P波低速层,这种特殊的构造条件可能是导致此次地震发生的重要原因.

     

Correction factors for SSI effects predicted by simplified models: 2D versus 3D rectangular embedded foundations

The effects of soil‐structure interaction (SSI) are often studied using two‐dimensional (2D) or axisymmetric three‐dimensional (3D) models to avoid the high cost of the more realistic, fully 3D models, which require 2 to 3 orders of magnitude more computer time and storage. This paper analyzes the error and presents correction factors for system frequency, system damping, and peak amplitude of structural response computed using impedances for linear in‐plane 2D models with rectangular foundations, embedded in uniform or layered half‐space. They are computed by comparison with results for 3D rectangular foundations with the same vertical cross‐section and different aspect ratios. The structure is represented by a single degree‐of‐freedom oscillator. Correction factors are presented for a range of the model parameters. The results show that in‐plane 2D approximations overestimate the SSI effects, exaggerating the frequency shift, the radiation damping, and the reduction of the peak amplitude. The errors are larger for stiffer, taller, and heavier structures, deeper foundations, and deeper soil layer. For example, for a stiff structure like Millikan library (NS response; length‐to‐width ratio ≈ 1), the error is 6.5% in system frequency, 44% in system damping, and 140% in peak amplitude. The antiplane 2D approximation has an opposite effect on system frequency and the same effect on system damping and peak relative response. Linear response analysis of a case study shows that the NEHRP‐2015 provisions for reduction of base shear force due to SSI may be unsafe for some structures. The presented correction factor diagrams can be used in practical design and other applications.     

大地电磁三维交错网格有限差分数值模拟的并行计算研究

为了更有效的提高大地电磁三维正演的计算速度,引入了并行处理技术.大地电磁三维交错网格有限差分数值模拟是按照不同频率来计算的,各频率之间求取电磁场值的过程是相互独立的.根据这一特点,可以将多个频率的计算任务平均划分为一个或者几个频率的计算子任务,分配到各个计算节点去并行执行,计算完成后将结果汇总.本文通过采用主从并行模式、分频并行计算的方案,在曙光TC5000A高性能并行平台上实现了基于MPI的大地电磁三维正演的并行计算.通过两个理论模型对实现的大地电磁三维正演并行算法进行试算,对比分析了多个节点机下程序的执行效率.测试结果表明,所实现的三维正演并行算法是正确的、高效的,为进一步的大地电磁三维反演并行算法研究奠定了重要基础.