Hf and Nd isotopes in marine sediments: Constraints on global silicate weathering

The combined use of Lu–Hf and Sm–Nd isotope systems potentially offers a unique perspective for investigating continental erosion, but little is known about whether, and to what extent, the Hf–Nd isotope composition of sediments is related to silicate weathering intensity. In this study, Hf and Nd elemental and isotope data are reported for marine muds, leached Fe-oxide fractions and zircon-rich turbidite sands collected off the Congo River mouth, and from other parts of the SE Atlantic Ocean. All studied samples from the Congo fan (muds, Fe-hydroxides, sands) exhibit indistinguishable Nd isotopic composition (ε_Nd ~ ? 16), indicating that Fe-hydroxides leached from these sediments correspond to continental oxides precipitated within the Congo basin. In marked contrast, Hf isotope compositions for the same samples exhibit significant variations. Leached Fe-hydroxide fractions are characterized by ε_Hf values (from ? 1.1 to + 1.3) far more radiogenic than associated sediments (from ? 7.1 to ? 12.0) and turbidite sands (from ? 27.2 to ? 31.6). ε_Hf values for Congo fan sediments correlate very well with Al/K (i.e. a well-known index for the intensity of chemical weathering in Central Africa). Taken together, these results indicate that (1) silicate weathering on continents leads to erosion products having very distinctive Hf isotope signatures, and (2) a direct relationship exists between ε_Hf of secondary clay minerals and chemical weathering intensity.These results combined with data from the literature have global implications for understanding the Hf–Nd isotope variability in marine precipitates and sediments. Leached Fe-hydroxides from Congo fan sediments plot remarkably well on an extension of the ‘seawater array’ (i.e. the correlation defined by deep-sea Fe–Mn precipitates), providing additional support to the suggestion that the ocean Hf budget is dominated by continental inputs. Fine-grained sediments define a diffuse trend, between that for igneous rocks and the ‘seawater array’, which we refer to as the ‘zircon-free sediment array’ (ε_Hf = 0.91 ε_Nd + 3.10). Finally, we show that the Hf–Nd arrays for seawater, unweathered igneous rocks, zircon-free and zircon-bearing sediments (ε_Hf = 1.80 ε_Nd + 2.35) can all be reconciled, using Monte Carlo simulations, with a simple weathering model of the continental crust.     

Balancing the global oceanic neodymium budget: Evaluating the role of groundwater

The distinctly different, ε_Nd(0) values of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans requires that the residence time of Nd in the ocean (i.e., τ_Nd) be on the order of, or less than, the ocean mixing time of ∼ 500–1500 yr. However, estimates of τ_Nd, based on river influxes, range from 4000 to 15,000 yr, thus exceeding the ocean mixing time. In order to reconcile the oceanic Nd budget and lower the residence time by roughly a factor of 10, an additional, as yet unidentified, and hence “missing Nd flux” to the ocean is necessary. Dissolution of materials deposited on continental margins has previously been proposed as a source of the missing flux. In this contribution, submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is examined as a possible source of the missing Nd flux. Neodymium concentrations (n = 730) and ε_Nd(0) values (n = 58) for groundwaters were obtained from the literature in order to establish representative groundwater values. Mean groundwater Nd concentrations and ε_Nd(0) values were used along with recent estimates of the terrestrial (freshwater) component of SGD (6% of river discharge on a global basis) to test whether groundwater discharge to the coastal oceans could account for the missing flux. Employing mean Nd concentrations of the compiled data base (i.e., 31.8 nmol/kg for all 730 analyses and 11.3 nmol/kg for 141 groundwater samples from a coastal aquifer), the global, terrestrial-derived SGD flux of Nd is estimated to range between 2.9 × 10⁷ and 8.1 × 10⁷ mol/yr. These estimates are of the same order of magnitude, and within a factor of 2, of the missing Nd flux (i.e., 5.4 × 10⁷ mol/yr). Applying the SGD Nd flux estimates, the global average ε_Nd(0) of SGD is predicted to be − 9.1, which is similar to our estimate for the missing Nd flux (− 9.2), and in agreement with the mean (± S.D.) ε_Nd(0) measured in groundwaters (i.e., ε_Nd(0) = −8.9 ± 4.2). The similarities in the estimated SGD Nd flux and corresponding ε_Nd(0) values to the magnitude and isotope composition of the missing Nd flux are compelling, and suggest that discharge of groundwater to the oceans could account for the missing Nd flux. Future investigations should focus on quantifying the Nd concentrations and isotope compositions of groundwater from coastal aquifers from a variety of coastal settings, as well as the important geochemical reactions that effect Nd concentrations in subterranean estuaries in order to better constrain contributions of SGD to the oceanic Nd budget.     

Mass-dependent cadmium isotopic variations in nature with emphasis on the marine environment

We report a survey of natural mass-dependent cadmium isotope fractionation measured by thermal ionization mass spectrometry using a double-spike technique (DS-TIMS). Over sixty samples of natural terrestrial Cd from diverse environments, including MORB, OIB, continental loess, hydrogenic and hydrothermal ferromanganese deposits, and sphalerites (both oceanic and from major continental ore deposits) were analysed. Our results are expressed in terms of ε^112/110Cd, which are deviations in ¹¹²Cd/¹¹⁰Cd from our in-house JMC Cd standard in parts per 10⁴. The total ε^112/110Cd variation is relatively small, with a range of only 5 ε-units, and is one-to-two orders of magnitude smaller than that previously found in meteorites.The MORB, OIB and loess ε^112/110Cd values are similar and provide a good estimate for the bulk silicate Earth (BSE) value which is ? 0.95 ± 0.12 relative to our Cd standard (ε^112/110Cd = + 0.16 relative to Münster JMC Cd). Taken together, these data suggest little Cd isotope fractionation takes place during crust–mantle segregation. Cd isotopic compositions of continental sphalerite (ZnS) deposits worldwide and high-temperature oceanic hydrothermal sulphides show remarkably similar ε^112/110Cd values, consistent with our estimate for the BSE. In contrast, mid-temperature oceanic sulphides from a single extinct hydrothermal chimney display over 4 ε-units variation — along with the most negative values. These variations are most probably caused by precipitation/redissolution of sulphide phases en route within the hydrothermal system.The ε^112/110Cd variability found in worldwide marine Fe–Mn deposits reflects the seawater Cd isotope signal upon precipitation from ambient seawater. A decrease in ε^112/110Cd is observed in passing from shallow-water Fe–Mn deposits to those from deeper waters (> 2000 m depth). This shift is explained by biological fractionation related to the uptake of dissolved seawater Cd by phytoplankton in the upper water column. The relatively uniform ε^112/110Cd values close to zero at great depths are consistent with regeneration and remineralization of Cd at depth. Our data suggest that Cd isotopes – much like the Cd/Ca ratio in foraminifera – could potentially serve as a proxy for past changes in biological productivity. The temporal Cd isotope record in a Fe–Mn crust archive at 2000 m depth from the NE Atlantic suggests no gross long-term changes in Cd cycling took place over the past 8 Ma.     

Glacial–interglacial sediment transport to the Meiji Drift,northwest Pacific Ocean: Evidence for timing of Beringian outwashing

A large sediment deposit known as the Meiji Drift, located in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, is thought to have formed from deep water exiting the Bering Sea, although no notable deep water forms there presently. We determine the terrigenous sources since 140 ka to the drift using bulk sediment ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar and Nd isotopic analyses on the silt-sized (20–63 μm) terrigenous fraction from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 884 to reconstruct paleo-circulation patterns. There are large changes in both isotopic tracers, varying on glacial–interglacial cycles. During glacial intervals, bulk sediment ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar ages range between 40 and 80 Ma, while Nd isotopic values range from ε_Nd = ? 1 to + 2. During interglacial intervals, sediments become much younger and more radiogenic, with bulk sediment ages falling to 2–15 Ma and Nd isotopic values ranging between ε_Nd = + 5 and + 9. These data and quantitative comparison to potential source rocks indicate that the young Kamchatkan and Aleutian Arcs, lying NW and NE of the Meiji Drift, contribute the majority of sediment during interglacials. Conversely, older source rocks, such as those drained by the Yukon River and northeast Russia are the dominant origin of sediments during glacials. Mixing model calculations suggest that as much as 35–45% of the sediment deposited in the Meiji Drift during glacials is from the Bering Sea. It remains unclear whether thermohaline-type circulation or focussing of Bering Sea flow lead to the glacial–interglacial sediment source changes observed here.     

Nucleosynthetic osmium isotope anomalies in acid leachates of the Murchison meteorite

We present osmium isotopic results obtained by sequential leaching of the Murchison meteorite, which reveal the existence of very large internal anomalies of nucleosynthetic origin (ε¹⁸⁴Os from ? 108 to 460; ε¹⁸⁶Os from ? 14.1 to 12.6; ε¹⁸⁸Os from ? 2.6 to 1.6; ε¹⁹⁰Os from ? 1.7 to 1.1). Despite these large variations, the isotopic composition of the total leachable osmium (weighted average of the leachates) is close to that of bulk chondrites. This is consistent with efficient large-scale mixing of Os isotopic anomalies in the protosolar nebula. The Os isotopic anomalies are correlated, and can be explained by the variable contributions of components derived from the s, r and p-processes of nucleosynthesis. Surprisingly, much of the s-process rich osmium is released by relatively mild leaching, suggesting the existence of an easily leachable s-process rich presolar phase, or alternatively, of a chemically resistant r-process rich phase. Taken together with previous evidence for a highly insoluble s-process rich carrier, such as SiC, these results argue for the presence of several presolar phases with anomalous nucleosynthetic compositions in the Murchison meteorite. The s-process composition of Os released by mild leaching diverges slightly from that released by aggressive digestion techniques, perhaps suggesting that the presolar phases attacked by these differing procedures condensed in different stellar environments. The correlation between ε¹⁹⁰Os and ε¹⁸⁸Os can be used to constrain the s-process ¹⁹⁰Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratio to be 1.275 ± 0.043. Such a ratio can be reproduced in a nuclear reaction network for a MACS value for ¹⁹⁰Os of ~ 200 ± 22 mbarn at 30 keV. More generally, these results can help refine predictions of the s-process in the Os mass region, which can be used in turn to constrain the amount of cosmoradiogenic ¹⁸⁷Os in the solar system and hence the age of the Galaxy.We also present evidence for extensive internal variation of ¹⁸⁴Os abundances in the Murchison meteorite. A steep anti-correlation is observed between ε¹⁸⁴Os and ε¹⁸⁸Os. Since ¹⁸⁴Os is formed uniquely by the p-process, this anti-correlation cannot be explained by variable addition or subtraction of s-process Os to average solar system material. Instead, this suggests that p-process rich presolar grains (e.g., supernova condensates) may be present in meteorites in sufficient quantities to influence the Os isotopic compositions of the leachates. Nevertheless, ¹⁸⁴Os is a low abundance isotope and we cannot exclude the possibility that the measured anomalies for this isotope reflect unappreciated analytical artifacts.     

Understanding impacts of tropical storms and hurricanes on submerged bank reefs and coral communities in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico

A 100-year climatology of tropical storms and hurricanes within a 200-km buffer was developed to study their impacts on coral reefs of the Flower Garden Banks (FGB) and neighboring banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The FGB are most commonly affected by tropical storms from May through November, peaking in August–September. Storms approach from all directions; however, the majority of them approach from the southeast and southwest, which suggests a correlation with storm origin in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. A storm activity cycle lasting 30–40 years was identified similar to that known in the Atlantic basin, and is similar to the recovery time for impacted reefs. On average there is 52% chance of a storm approaching within 200 km of the FGB every year, but only 17% chance of a direct hit every year. Storm-generated waves 5–25 m in height and periods of 11–15 s induce particle speeds of 1–4 m s^?1 near these reefs. The wave–current flow is capable of transporting large (～3 cm) sediment particles, uplifting the near-bottom nepheloid layer to the banks tops, but not enough to break coral skeletons. The resulting storm-driven turbulence induces cooling by heat extraction, mixing, and upwelling, which reduces coral bleaching potential and deepens the mixed layer by about 20 m. Tropical storms also aid larvae dispersal from and onto the FGB. Low storm activity in 1994–2004 contributed to an 18% coral cover increase, but Hurricane Rita in 2005 reduced it by 11% and brought coral cover to nearly pre-1994 levels. These results suggest that the FGB reefs and neighboring reef banks act as coral refugia because of their offshore location and deep position in the water column, which shields them from deleterious effects of all but the strongest hurricanes.     

Seasonal and vertical distributional patterns of siphonophores and medusae in the Chiloé Interior Sea,Chile

The horizontal and vertical distribution of jellyfish was assessed in the Chiloé Inland sea, in the northern area of the Chilean Patagonia. A total of 41 species of cnidarians (8 siphonophores, 31 hydromedusae, 2 scyphomedusae) were collected. Eleven jellyfish species were recorded for the first time in the area. Species richness was higher in spring than in winter (37 vs. 25 species, respectively). Species such as Muggiaea atlantica, Solmundella bitentaculata, and Clytia simplex were extremely abundant in spring. The total abundance (408,157 ind 1000 m^?3) was 18 times higher in spring than in winter (22,406 ind 1000 m^?3).The horizontal distribution of the most abundant species (four in winter, five in spring) showed decreasing abundances in the north–south direction in winter and spring. Peak abundances occurred in the northern microbasins (Reloncaví Fjord, Reloncaví and Ancud gulfs), where the water column stability, phytoplankton and zooplankton abundance were higher, compared with the southern microbasins (Corcovado Gulf, Boca del Guafo). During the spring higher jellyfish abundance season, the vertical distribution of the dominant species (except M. atlantica) showed peak values at mid-depth (30–50 m) and in the deepest sampled layer (50–200 m). This vertical distribution pattern reduced seaward transport in the shallowest layer through estuarine circulation and also limited mortality by predation in the more illuminated shallow layers. Thus, jellyfish were able to remain in the interior waters during the season of maximum biological production.     

Empirical relationship between leaf wax n-alkane δD and altitude in the Wuyi,Shennongjia and Tianshan Mountains,China: Implications for paleoaltimetry

Estimating past elevation not only provides evidence for vertical movements of the Earth's lithosphere, but also increases our understanding of interactions between tectonics, relief and climate in geological history. Development of biomarker hydrogen isotope-based paleoaltimetry techniques that can be applied to a wide range of sample types is therefore of continuing importance. Here we present leaf wax-derived n-alkane δD (δD_wax) values along three soil altitudinal transects, at different latitudes, in the Wuyi, Shennongjia and Tianshan Mountains in China, to investigate δD_wax gradients and the apparent fractionation between leaf wax and precipitation (ε_wax-p).We find that soil δD_wax track altitudinal variations of precipitation δD along the three transects that span variable environment conditions and vertical vegetation spectra. An empirical δD_wax-altitude relation is therefore established in which the average δD_wax lapse rate of ? 2.27 ± 0.38‰/100 m is suitable for predicting relative paleoelevation change (relative uplift). The application of this empirical gradient is restricted to phases in the mountain uplift stage when the atmospheric circulation had not distinctly changed and to when the climate was not arid. An empirical δD_wax–latitude–altitude formula is also calculated: δD_wax = 3.483LAT ? 0.0227ALT ? 261.5, which gives the preliminary spatial distribution pattern of δD_wax in modern China.Mean value of ε_wax-p in the extreme humid Wuyi Mountains is quite negative (? 154‰), compared to the humid Shennongjia (? 129‰) and the arid (but with abundant summer precipitation) Tianshan Mountains (? 130‰), which suggests aridity or water availability in the growing season is the primary factor controlling soil/sediment ε_wax-p. Along the Tianshan transects, values of ε_wax-p are speculated to be constant with altitude; while along the Wuyi and Shennongjia transects, ε_wax-p are also constant at the low-mid altitudes, but become slightly more negative at high altitudes which could be attributed to overestimates of precipitation δD or the vegetation shift to grass/conifer.Additionally, a reversal of altitude effect in the vertical variation of δD_wax was found in the alpine zone of the Tianshan Mountains, which might be caused by atmospheric circulation change with altitude. This implies that the paleo-circulation pattern and its changes should also be evaluated when stable isotope-based paleoaltimetry is applied.     

Age and nature of eclogites in the Huwan shear zone,and the multi-stage evolution of the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogen,central China

In situ LA-ICPMS U-Pb, trace element, and Hf isotope data in zircon demonstrate a Carboniferous age for eclogite-facies metamorphism in Siluro-Devonian protoliths in the Huwan shear zone, Dabie Mountains, Central China. This age contrasts with the more prevailing Triassic age for high- to ultrahigh pressure (HP to UHP) metamorphism in the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogen. Metamorphic zircon in two eclogite samples from Sujiahe is characterized by low Th/U ratios, small negative Eu anomalies, flat HREE patterns, and low ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios. These geochemical signatures suggest that the zircon crystallized in the presence of garnet and in the absence of plagioclase feldspar. Furthermore, temperatures of ~ 655 and ~ 638 °C, calculated using the Ti content of zircon, are consistent with their formation during eclogite-facies metamorphism. The weighted mean ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 309 ± 4 Ma (2δ) for this zircon improves previous age estimates for eclogite-facies metamorphism in the Huwan shear zone, ranging from 420 to 220 Ma. Metamorphic zircon from one eclogite sample from Hujiawan, most likely formed during prograde metamorphism, yields an equivalent age estimate of 312 ± 11 Ma. Magmatic zircon cores in the three samples yield ages for the magmatic protoliths of the eclogites ranging from 420 ± 7 to 406 ± 5 Ma, and post-dating the middle Paleozoic collision of the North China and the Qinling terrain. The zircon crystals in the three eclogite samples display a large variation of ε_Hf (t) values of ? 4.9 to 21.3. The metamorphic zircon overgrowths show the same range of ε_Hf (t) values as those of the inherited magmatic crystal interiors. This suggests that the metamorphic zircon overgrowths may have formed by dissolution-reprecipitation of pre-existing magmatic zircon thereby preserving their original Hf isotopic composition. The high ε_Hf (t) values suggest that the protoliths were derived from depleted mantle sources, most likely Paleotethyan oceanic crust; while the low ε_Hf (t) values are attributed to crustal contamination. Some eclogites in the Huwan shear zone have a distinctive signature of continental crust most probably derived from the Yangtze Craton. The coexistence of Paleozoic oceanic crust and Neoproterozoic continental crust with similar metamorphic ages in the Huwan shear zone implies that Paleozoic Paleotethyan oceanic crust was produced within a marginal basin of the northern Yangtze Craton. The opening of the Paleo-Tethyan ocean was slightly younger than the collision of the North China Craton and the Qinling terrain during the Late Paleozoic in the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogen. Subduction of the Paleo-Tethyan oceanic crust and associated continental basement resulted in the 309 ± 2 Ma (2σ) eclogite-facies metamorphism in the Huwan shear zone. The subsequent Triassic continent-continent collision led to the final coalescence of the Yangtze and Sino-Korean cratons. Amalgamation of the Yangtze and North China cratons was, therefore, a multistage process extending over at least 200 Ma.     

Lethal doses of oxbile,peptones and thiosulfate-citrate-bile-sucrose agar (TCBS) for Acanthaster planci; exploring alternative population control options

Effective control of outbreaks of Acanthaster planci represents the most immediate and practical intervention to reverse sustained declines in coral cover on reefs in the Indo-Pacific. This study explored the minimum doses of oxbile, oxgall, and thiosulfate-citrate-bile-sucrose agar (TCBS) that result in reliable and comprehensive mortality when injected into adult A. planci. The minimum doses required to induce 100% mortality among starfish (n = 10) were 4 g l⁻¹ of oxbile, 8 g l⁻¹ of oxgall and 22 g l⁻¹ of TCBS. Moreover, there was no evidence of unintended side effects for other coral reef organisms (e.g., scleractinian corals, echinoderms and fishes) when using oxbile, oxgall, or TCBS at minimum doses. The effectiveness of peptones in killing crown-of-thorns starfish was also tested, but inconsistency in the results revealed that these proteins are unreliable.     

Present warming within the context of cooling–warming cycles observed since 1854 in the Bay of Biscay

The warming trend observed during the last decades in the Bay of Biscay is put within the context of sea surface temperature (SST) changes observed in the area since 1854. Macroscopically, two consecutive warming–cooling cycles were detected during this period of time: cooling from 1867 to 1910; warming from 1910 to 1945; cooling from 1945 to 1974; and warming from 1974 to nowadays. Warming rates of 0.17 and 0.22 °C per decade were measured during the warming sub-periods and cooling rates of ?0.14 and ?0.10 °C per decade were measured during the cooling sub-periods. The present warming period is on the same order of magnitude although slightly more intense than the one observed from 1910 to 1945, which is consistent with previous analysis carried for the North Atlantic. Finally, the thermal amplitude defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum annual values has increased since 1974 at a rate of 0.06 °C per decade due to the different increasing rates of the maximum (0.26 °C per decade) and minimum (0.20 °C per decade) SSTs.     

Rapid crustal uplift in Patagonia due to enhanced ice loss

A vertical crustal uplift rate of 39 mm yr^? 1 is measured between 2003 and 2006 using Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements at the northeastern edge of the Southern Patagonia Icefield (SPI). This is the largest present-day glacial isostatic rate ever recorded. The combination of SPI's rapid melting and the unique regional slab-window tectonics that promotes a relatively low viscosity, is central to our interpretation of the observations. The two effects lead to a strong interaction of short relaxation times with ice loads that change on a comparable time scale. The profile of GPS observations link ice loss to the soft viscoelastic isostatic flow response over the time scale of the Little Ice Age (LIA), including ice loss in the period of observation. The agreement of the results with our model predictions strongly suggests the large crustal uplift in Patagonia is due an accelerated glacier wasting since the termination of the LIA and that the effective regional mantle viscosity is near 4.0–8.0 × 10¹⁸ Pa s. A century-long diminution of the icefields, at rates that are about 1/4 – 1/2 the contemporary loss rates, is consistent with multidecadal-scale temperature trends estimated for the past 50–100 years and is, in fact, a key feature in any model capable of explaining the uplift data.     

Tolerance of Brazilian brain coral Mussismilia braziliensis to sediment and organic matter inputs

In Brazil, where reefs occur in markedly turbid environments, the relationship between sedimentation/organic matter and corals is poorly known. Thus, the ex situ effects of sediment with and without organic matter over the ΔF/Fm and physical state of Mussismilia braziliensis were analyzed. The ΔF/Fm and coral physical state, evaluated through the susceptibility index to sedimentation (SI), were measured in seven colonies exposed to sedimentation (0–450 mg cm⁻² day⁻¹) free of organic matter after 45 days of exposure, and in 12 colonies exposed to sedimentation (0–500 mg cm⁻² day⁻¹) with organic matter content (10%), in which case ΔF/Fm was measured after 72 h and SI after 120 h. In both cases there were effects of increasing sedimentation on the SI with no effect on ΔF/Fm. Despite the tolerance to high sedimentation rates shown by this coral, we noted that the presence of organic matter might reduce its tolerance to sedimentation stress.     

In situ cosmogenic 10Be production-rate calibration from the Southern Alps,New Zealand

We present a ¹⁰Be production-rate calibration derived from an early Holocene debris-flow deposit at about 1000 m above sea level in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, in the mid-latitude Southern Hemisphere. Ten radiocarbon ages on macrofossils from a soil horizon buried by the deposit date the deposit to 9690 ± 50 calendar years before AD2008. Surface ¹⁰Be concentrations of seven large boulders partially embedded in the stable surface of the deposit are tightly distributed, yielding a standard deviation of ～2%. Conversion of the ¹⁰Be measurements to sea level/high-latitude values using each of five standard scaling methods indicates ¹⁰Be production rates of 3.84 ± 0.08, 3.87 ± 0.08, 3.83 ± 0.08, 4.15 ± 0.09, and 3.74 ± 0.08 atoms g^?1 a^?1, relative to the ‘07KNSTD’ ¹⁰Be AMS standard, and including only the local time-integrated production-rate uncertainties. When including a sea level high-latitude scaling uncertainty the overall error is ～2.5% (1σ) for each rate. To test the regional applicability of this production-rate calibration, we measured ¹⁰Be concentrations in a set of nearby moraines deposited before 18 060 ± 200 years before AD2008. The ¹⁰Be ages are only consistent with minimum-limiting ¹⁴C age data when calculated using the new production rates. This also suggests that terrestrial in situ cosmogenic-nuclide production did not change significantly from Last Glacial Maximum to Holocene time in New Zealand. Our production rates agree well with those of a recent calibration study from northeastern North America, but are 12–14% lower than other commonly adopted values. The production-rate values presented here can be used elsewhere in New Zealand for rock surfaces exposed during or since the last glacial period.     

Transport of salt and freshwater in the Atlantic Subpolar Gyre

Transport of salt in the Irminger Current, the northern branch of the Atlantic Subpolar Gyre coupling the eastern and western subpolar North Atlantic, plays an important role for climate variability across a wide range of time scales. High-resolution ocean modeling and observations indicate that salinities in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic decrease with enhanced circulation of the North Atlantic subpolar gyre (SPG). This has led to the perception that a stronger SPG also transports less salt westward. In this study, we analyze a regional ocean model and a comprehensive global coupled climate model, and show that a stronger SPG transports more salt in the Irminger Current irrespective of lower salinities in its source region. The additional salt converges in the Labrador Sea and the Irminger Basin by eddy transports, increases surface salinity in the western SPG, and favors more intense deep convection. This is part of a positive feedback mechanism with potentially large implications for climate variability and predictability.     

Spatial–temporal changes in Andean plateau climate and elevation from stable isotopes of mammal teeth

Paleoelevation constraints from fossil leaf physiognomy and stable isotopes of sedimentary carbonate suggest that significant surface uplift of the northern Andean plateau, on the order of 2.5 ± 1 km, occurred between ～ 10.3 and 6.4 Ma. Independent spatial and temporal constraints on paleoelevation and paleoclimate of both the northern and southern plateau are important for understanding the distribution of rapid surface uplift and its relation to climate evolution across the plateau. This study focuses on teeth from modern and extinct mammal taxa (including notoungulates, pyrotheres, and litopterns) spanning ～ 29 Ma to present, collected from the Altiplano and Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia (16.2°S to 21.4°S), and lowland Brazil. Tooth enamel of large, water-dependent mammals preserves a record of surface water isotopes and the type of plants that animals ingested while their teeth were mineralizing. Previous studies have shown that the δ¹⁸O of modern precipitation and surface waters decrease systematically with increasing elevations across the central Andes. Our results from high elevation sites between 3600 and 4100 m show substantially more positive δ¹⁸O values for late Oligocene tooth samples compared to < 10 Ma tooth δ¹⁸O values. Late Oligocene teeth collected from low elevation sites in southeast Brazil show δ¹⁸O values similar (within 2‰) to contemporaneous teeth collected at high elevation in the Eastern Cordillera. This affirms that the Andean plateau was at a very low elevation during the late Oligocene. Late Oligocene teeth from the northern Eastern Cordillera also yield consistent δ¹³C values of about ? 9‰, indicating that the environment was semi-arid at that time. Latitudinal gradients in δ¹⁸O values of late Miocene to Pliocene fossil teeth are similar to modern values for large mammals, suggesting that by ～ 8 Ma in the northern Altiplano and by ～ 3.6 Ma in the southern Altiplano, both regions had reached high elevation and established a latitudinal rainfall gradient similar to modern.     

Deglacial sea surface temperature and salinity increase in the western tropical Atlantic in synchrony with high latitude climate instabilities

A sediment core from the western tropical Atlantic covering the last 21,000 yr has been analysed for centennial scale reconstruction of sea surface temperature (SST) and ice volume-corrected oxygen isotopic composition of sea water (δ¹⁸O_ivc-sw) using Mg / Ca and δ¹⁸O of the shallow dwelling planktonic foraminifer Globigerinoides ruber (white). At a period between 15.5 and 17.5 kyr BP, the Mg / Ca SST and δ¹⁸O_ivc-sw, a proxy for sea surface salinity (SSS), reveals a warming of around 2.5 °C along with an increase in salinity. A second period of pronounced warming and SSS increase occurred between 11.6 and 13.5 kyr BP. Within age model uncertainties, both warming intervals were synchronous with air temperature increase over Antarctica and ice retreat in the southern South Atlantic and terminated with abrupt centennial scale SSS decrease and slight SST cooling in conjunction with interglacial reactivation of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC). We suggest that during these warm intervals, production of saline and warm water of the North Brazil Current resulted in pronounced heat and salt accumulation, and was associated with warming in the southern Atlantic, southward displacement of the intertropical convergence zone and weakened MOC. At the termination of the Younger Dryas and Heinrich event 1, intensification of cross-equatorial heat and salt transport caused centennial scale cooling and freshening of the western tropical Atlantic surface water. This study shows that the western tropical Atlantic served as a heat and salt reservoir during deglaciation. The sudden release of accumulated heat and salt at the end of Younger Drays and Heinrich event 1 may have contributed to the rapid reinvigoration of the Atlantic MOC.     

Nighttime E region plasma irregularities over an equatorial station Trivandrum

In situ measurements of electron density were made over Trivandrum (8.5°N, 76.9°E) during nighttime to study E-region plasma density irregularities. Irregularities, with vertical scale sizes from a few km to 15 cm, were detected during rocket ascent and descent. Electron density profiles during ascent and descent of an earlier nighttime rocket flight from Trivandrum are also presented. Some of the important results are as follows: (i) horizontal gradients in electron density exist in 110–120 km region with horizontal scale size of at least 40 km, (ii) based on the presence/absence of electron density structures during ascent and descent of both flights, the horizontal distance over which the gradient drift instability operates is found to be at least 80 km and 90 km, for both the flights, (iii) observed irregularities in regions of negative density gradient are suggested to be produced through the gradient drift instability (GDI) driven by vertical polarization electric field as well as by electric field produced through wind shears and those in positive gradient regions by wind driven GDI, (iv) largest irregularity amplitude (≈30%) was associated with steepest gradients and so was the presence of smallest vertical scale sizes (12 m to 15 cm), which were absent at other altitudes, (v) the spectral index of irregularities was in the range of ?2.2±0.2 for large scales (few kilometers>λ>50 m), ?3.25±0.25 for medium scales (50 m>λ>10 m) and ?2.6±0.1 for smaller scales (10 m>λ>1 m) and (vi) irregularities in large and medium scales are expected to be produced directly through GDI and the small and sum-meter scales through non-linear GDI.     

Low-degree melting of a metasomatized lithospheric mantle for the origin of Cenozoic Yulong monzogranite-porphyry,east Tibet: Geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic constraints

SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating, mineral chemical, element geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic data have been determined for the Yulong monzogranite-porphyry in the eastern Tibet, China. The Yulong porphyry was emplaced into Triassic strata at about 39 Ma. The rocks are weakly peraluminous and show shoshonitic affinity, i.e., alkalis-rich, high K₂O contents with high K₂O / Na₂O ratios, enrichment in LREE and LILE. They also show some affinities with the adakite, e.g., high SiO₂ and Al₂O₃, and low MgO contents, depleted in Y and Yb, and enrichment in Sr with high Sr / Y and La / Yb ratios, and no Eu anomalies. The Yulong porphyry has radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr / ⁸⁶Sr (0.7063–0.7070) and unradiogenic ¹⁴³Nd / ¹⁴⁴Nd (ε_Nd = − 2.0 to − 3.0) ratios. The Pb isotopic compositions of feldspar phenocrysts separated from the Yulong porphyry show a narrow range of ²⁰⁶Pb / ²⁰⁴Pb ratios (18.71–18.82) and unusually radiogenic ²⁰⁷Pb / ²⁰⁴Pb (15.65–15.67) and ²⁰⁸Pb / ²⁰⁴Pb (38.87–39.00) ratios. In situ Hf isotopic composition of zircons that have been SHRIMP U–Pb dated is characterized by clearly positive initial ε_Hf values, ranging from + 3.1 to + 5.9, most between + 4 and + 5. Phenocryst clinopyroxene geothermometry of the Yulong porphyry indicates that the primary magmas had anomalously high temperature (> 1200 °C). The source depth for the Yulong porphyry is at least 100 km inferred by the metasomatic volatile phase (phlogopite–carbonate) relations. Detailed geochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic compositions not only rule out fractional crystallization or assimilation-fractional crystallization processes, but also deny the possibility of partial melting of subducted oceanic crust or basaltic lower crust. Instead, low degree (1–5%) partial melting of a metasomatized lithosphere (phlogopite–garnet clinopyroxenite) is compatible with the data. This example gives a case study that granite can be derived directly by partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle, which is important to understand the source and origin of diverse granites.     

Formation of the Late Permian Panzhihua plutonic-hypabyssal-volcanic igneous complex: Implications for the genesis of Fe–Ti oxide deposits and A-type granites of SW China

The Late Permian (260 Ma) Emeishan large igneous province of SW China contains numerous magmatic Fe–Ti oxide deposits. The Fe–Ti oxide deposits occur in the lower parts of evolved layered gabbroic intrusions which are spatially and temporally associated with A-type granitic rocks. The 260 Ma Panzhihua layered gabbroic intrusion hosts one of the largest magmatic Fe–Ti oxide deposits in China and is coeval with a peralkaline A-type granitic pluton. The granite has intruded the overlying Emeishan flood basalts and fed at least one dyke which erupted onto the surface producing columnar jointed trachytes. The presence of syenodiorite between the layered gabbro and granite is evidence for compositional evolution from mafic to intermediate to felsic rocks. The syenodiorites have intermediate to felsic composition with SiO₂ = 61 to 65 wt.%, MgO = 0.27 to 0.6 wt.% and CaO = 1.0 to 2.5 wt.% as compared to the granite SiO₂ = 65 to 72 wt.%, MgO = 0.1 to 0.4 wt.%, CaO = < 1.0 wt.%. Primitive-mantle-normalized incompatible element plots show corresponding reciprocal patterns between the mafic and felsic rocks. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns show Eu anomalies changing from > 1(Eu/Eu? = 1.1 to 2.6) in the gabbroic intrusion, to < 1 in the syenodiorite (Eu/Eu? = 0.75 to 0.83), granites and trachytes (Eu/Eu? = 0.55–0.87). Previously published εNd_(T) values from clinopyroxenes (εNd_(T) = + 1.1 to + 3.2) of the gabbroic intrusion match the whole-rock values of the syenodiorite (εNd_(T) = + 2.1 to + 2.5), granite and trachyte (εNd_(T) = + 2.2 to + 2.9), suggesting that all rock types originated from the same mantle source. MELTS and trace element modeling confirm that all rock types can be generated by fractional crystallization of high-Ti Emeishan basalt. The jump in SiO₂ from the gabbro to the syenodiorite is attributed to the en masse crystallization of the Fe–Ti oxides. The geological and geochemical data indicate that fractional crystallization of a common parental magma produced the layered gabbroic intrusion and Fe–Ti oxide deposit, the syenodiorite, granites and trachyte of the Panzhihua region, which thus form a genetically related plutonic-hypabyssal-volcanic complex. Other granite–gabbro complexes in the region likely formed in a similar manner.