The Impact of Radiation on the GABLS3 Large-Eddy Simulation through the Night and during the Morning Transition

Large-eddy simulation in the GABLS3 intercomparison is concerned with the developed stable boundary layer (SBL) and the ensuing morning transition. The impact of radiative transfer on simulations of this case is assessed. By the time of the reversal of the surface buoyancy flux, a modest reduction of the lapse rate in the developed SBL is apparent in simulations that include longwave radiation. Subsequently, with radiation, the developing mixed layer grows significantly more quickly, so that four hours after the transition the mixed layer is roughly 40 % deeper; the resulting profiles of potential temperature and specific humidity are in better agreement with observations. The inclusion of radiation does not substantively alter the shape of turbulent spectra, but it does indirectly reduce the variance of temperature fluctuations in the mixed layer. The deepening of the mixed layer is interpreted as a response to the reduction of the strength of the capping inversion, resulting from cumulative radiative cooling in the residual layer and around the top of the former SBL. Sensitivity studies are performed to separate the two effects. Solar radiative heating of the atmosphere has a smaller impact on the development of the mixed layer than does longwave radiative cooling and slightly reduces its rate of growth, compared to simulations including longwave radiation alone. These simulations demonstrate that nocturnal radiative processes have an important effect on the morning transition and that they should be considered in future large-eddy simulations of the transition.     

Characteristics of intermittent turbulence in the upper stable boundary layer over Greenland

The experiment IGLOS (Investigation of the Greenland Boundary Layer Over Summit) was conducted in June and July 2002 in the central plateau of the Greenland inland ice. The German research aircraft Polar2, equipped with the turbulence measurement system Meteopod, was used to investigate turbulence and radiation flux profiles near research station “Summit Camp”. Aircraft measurements are combined with measurements of radiation fluxes and turbulent quantities made from a 50 m tower at Summit Camp operated by Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich. During all six flight missions, well-developed stable boundary layers were found. Even in high-wind conditions, the surface inversion thickness did not exceed roughly 100 m. The turbulent height of the stable boundary layer (SBL) was found to be much smaller than the surface inversion thickness. Above the surface layer, significant turbulent fluxes occurred only intermittently in intervals on the order of a few kilometres. Turbulent event fraction in the upper SBL shows the same dependence on gradient Richardson number as reported for near-surface measurements. Clear-air longwave radiation divergence was always found to contribute significantly to the SBL heat budget. In low-wind cases, radiative cooling even turned out to be dominant.     

珠海三灶机场一次平流海雾的特征及成因初探

为进一步了解平流海雾的形成、发展和消散过程特点和机制,利用风廓线雷达、自动观测、探空、数值产品以及常规气象观测等资料,分析了2014年2月17—18日珠海三灶机场一次平流海雾过程的边界层温湿风三维演变特征及天气学成因。结果表明:边界层内暖湿平流输入、浅层辐合抬升、湍流加强、多层逆温结构以及夜间地面的辐射冷却有利于近地层饱和湿空气的凝结和逆温层的维持,是雾形成的主要物理机制;暖湿平流持续及湍流减弱或停歇是雾维持的原因;近地层偏北风干冷平流入侵并出现下沉气流及日间地面辐射增温使逆温层被破坏是雾消散的主要因素。     

‘Evolution of a Storm-driven Cloudy Boundary Layer in the Arctic’

To investigate the processes of development and maintenance of low-level clouds during major synoptic events, the cloudy boundary layer under stormy conditions during the summertime Arctic has been studied using observations from the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) experiment and large-eddy simulations (LES). On 29 July 1998, a stable Arctic cloudy boundary-layer event was observed after the passage of a synoptic low pressure system. The local dynamic and thermodynamic structure of the boundary layer was determined from aircraft measurements including the analysis of turbulence, cloud microphysics and radiative properties. After the upper cloud layer advected over the existing cloud layer, the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget indicated that the cloud layer below 200 m was maintained predominantly by shear production. Observations of longwave radiation showed that cloud-top cooling at the lower cloud top has been suppressed by radiative effects of the upper cloud layer. Our LES results demonstrate the importance of the combination of shear mixing near the surface and radiative cooling at the cloud top in the storm-driven cloudy boundary layer. Once the low-level cloud reaches a certain height, depending on the amount of cloud-top cooling, the two sources of TKE production begin to separate in space under continuous stormy conditions, suggesting one possible mechanism for the cloud layering. The sensitivity tests suggest that the storm-driven cloudy boundary layer is possibly switched to the shear-driven system due to the advection of upper clouds or to the buoyantly driven system due to the lack of wind shear. A comparison is made of this storm-driven boundary layer with the buoyantly driven boundary layer previously described in the literature.     

一次深厚浓雾过程的边界层特征和生消物理机制

2007年12月13-14日,南京出现一次厚度达600 m、持续近14 h的浓雾过程,其中强浓雾阶段维持4 h.通过系留气球边界层探测系统、涡动协方差测量系统、雾滴尺度分布和自动气象站等外场试验资料分析了此次深厚浓雾过程的边界层结构特征和生消物理机制.结果表明,此次雾过程首先由地面辐射冷却形成贴地雾层,而后因低空平流冷却形成低云.在发展阶段,伴随低云不断下伸,贴地雾层不断抬升.在贴地雾层受到地面弱冷空气平流降温影响下,雾中微物理过程迅速发展,雾滴数密度、含水量、平均直径、最大直径等微物理参数在15 min内跃增,雾体爆发性升高,最终导致地面雾和低云上下贯通形成深厚雾层,地面能见度骤降至15 m以下.雾体爆发性增强时,地面垂直动量通量和向下长波辐射通量密度增大,净辐射趋于零.整个雾过程中,由于贴地层持续弱冷平流降温和上层雾阻碍了下层雾的辐射降温,二者的共同作用使贴地强逆温结构始终维持.     

2006年12月24—27日大范围大雾过程数值模拟

利用美国国家大气研究中心(NCAR)和宾夕法尼亚州立大学(PSU)联合研制的第5代中尺度气象模式系统MM5对2006年12月24—27日江苏及其周边地区出现的一次罕见持续性大雾进行数值模拟和诊断分析, 同时对影响大雾过程的辐射条件进行敏感性试验。结果表明:形成持续性大雾的主要原因是大气层结稳定, 水汽充沛, 同时, 地面和大气的长波辐射冷却是雾形成和发展的最重要因素; 而日出后太阳短波辐射加热和热量湍流输送是辐射雾消散的主要原因。在大雾发展和维持期间, 雾区近地层基本上为弱的水汽辐合区; 在大雾减弱和消散期间, 雾区大部分为弱的水汽辐散区。大范围的下沉辐散运动有利于中低层大气增温, 与近地层的辐射降温相配合, 加上近地层弱冷平流作用, 使低层大气降温, 有助于逆温形成, 而深厚逆温层的存在, 对雾区的长时间维持起着决定性作用。     

华南沿海暖海雾过程中的湍流热量交换特征

湍流交换是海雾中的关键物理过程, 在海雾的热量和水汽平衡过程中起重要作用。本文根据2007年3月24～25日一次海雾的外场观测数据, 分析了海雾过程中近海面湍流热量交换特征; 并在区分风切变机械湍流与雾顶长波辐射冷却热力湍流的基础上, 着重分析了两种不同性质的湍流对海雾发展和维持的作用。结果表明: (1) 本次海雾是在西南低压和变性冷高压的控制下, 来自南海东部暖水区的空气平流在近岸冷海面上形成的暖海雾; 暖海雾中的湍流热量交换过程比冷海雾更为复杂; (2) 在暖海雾的形成和消散阶段, 风切变机械湍流的热量输送起主要作用; 而在发展和维持阶段, 既有风切变机械湍流的热量输送作用, 也有雾顶长波辐射冷却热力湍流的热量输送作用; (3) 风切变机械湍流向冷海面输送热量, 对近海面空气起到降温和增湿作用; 热力湍流同样向冷海面输送热量, 但对雾层起到增温和降湿作用; (4) 暖海雾中的湍流热量交换机制与雾层的非充分混合结构有密切关系。     

A Heavy Sea Fog Event over the Yellow Sea in March 2005： Analysis and Numerical Modeling

In this paper, a heavy sea fog episode that occurred over the Yellow Sea on 9 March 2005 is investigated. The sea fog patch, with a spatial scale of several hundred kilometers at its mature stage, reduced visibility along the Shandong Peninsula coast to 100 m or much less at some sites. Satellite images, surface observations and soundings at islands and coasts, and analyses from the Japan Meteorology Agency （JMA） axe used to describe and analyze this event. The analysis indicates that this sea fog can be categorized as advection cooling fog. The main features of this sea fog including fog area and its movement axe reasonably reproduced by the Fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model （MM5）. Model results suggest that the formation and evolution of this event can be outlined as： （1） southerly warm/moist advection of low-level air resulted in a strong sea-surface-based inversion with a thickness of about 600 m; （2） when the inversion moved from the warmer East Sea to the colder Yellow Sea, a thermal internal boundary layer （TIBL） gradually formed at the base of the inversion while the sea fog grew in response to cooling and moistening by turbulence mixing; （3） the sea fog developed as the TIBL moved northward and （4） strong northerly cold and dry wind destroyed the TIBL and dissipated the sea fog. The principal findings of this study axe that sea fog forms in response to relatively persistent southerly waxm/moist wind and a cold sea surface, and that turbulence mixing by wind shear is the primary mechanism for the cooling and moistening the marine layer. In addition, the study of sensitivity experiments indicates that deterministic numerical modeling offers a promising approach to the prediction of sea fog over the Yellow Sea but it may be more efficient to consider ensemble numerical modeling because of the extreme sensitivity to model input.     

污染大气边界层的长波冷却率模式

考虑大气气溶胶在长波窗区的散射和吸收作用以及水汽的连续吸收作用，建立了一个适用于污染大气边界层的长波冷却率模式。计算结果表明：当单位面积气柱中气溶胶含量为７８５．９ｍｇ／ｍ２时，气溶胶的作用可使到达地面的长波向下辐射增大３９Ｗ／ｍ２。在大气窗区，大气气溶胶和水汽的连续吸收对长波冷却率的影响是同等重要的。在水汽含量和气溶胶浓度较大的大气边界层内，水汽连续吸收的冷却率最大时可达１．３Ｋ／ｄ，气溶胶的冷却率最大时可达到１．６６Ｋ／ｄ，二者对长波冷却率的贡献均不容忽视     

Current problems in the stratocumulus-topped atmospheric boundary layer

Extended sheets of stratocumulus (Sc) in the upper part of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) often occur under appropriate meteorological conditions. These cloud decks are important both in climate studies and in weather forecasting. We review the current knowledge of the turbulent structure of the ABL capped by a cloud deck, in the light of recent observations and model studies. The most important physical processes determining this structure are longwave radiative cooling at cloud top, shortwave radiative wanning by absorption in the cloud, surface buoyancy flux, and wind shear in the ABL. As a result, turbulence can cause entrainment against the buoyancy jump at cloud top. In cases where only longwave radiative fluxes and surface buoyancy fluxes are important, the turbulent structure is relatively well understood. When shortwave radiative fluxes and/or wind shear are also important, the resulting turbulent structure may change considerably. A decoupling of the cloud from the sub-cloud layer or of the top of the cloud from the rest of the ABL is then regularly observed. In no cases are the details of the entrainment at cloud top understood well enough to derive a relatively simple formulation that is consistent with observations. Cloud-top entrainment instability may lead to the break-up of a cloud deck (but also to cloud deepening). The role of mesoscale circulations in determining fractional cloudiness is not yet well understood.     

海雾的准周期振荡特征

根据南海北部海雾外场观测获取的高分辨率液态含水量、长波辐射通量数据,采用小波分析方法分析了2008年3月16—17日和18—19日两次海雾中的液态水含量、净长波辐射通量的变化特征,讨论南海北部海雾发展和维持的冷却机制。结果显示:(1)无论在有云或无云条件下,海雾都可发展和维持;但前者的液态含水量明显小于后者,而风速大于后者;(2)在地面海雾的生成之前和生成初期,净辐射通量都存在准周期振荡现象,无论无云/有云,地面海雾液态水的大幅度发展的阶段都存在含水量的准周期振荡现象;(3)含水量的准周期振荡现象与振荡发生时段的长波辐射通量关系不大,而主要通过湍流对液态水的混合作用与高空海雾液态水大量生成阶段的雾顶长波辐射间接相关。(4)海雾的生成都与雾顶长波辐射冷却密切相关,但发展和维持可通过不同的冷却机制,既可通过海气间湍流热量输送和辐射传输,也可通过雾顶长波辐射冷却。     

The Third GABLS Intercomparison Case for Evaluation Studies of Boundary-Layer Models. Part B: Results and Process Understanding

We describe and analyze the results of the third global energy and water cycle experiment atmospheric boundary layer Study intercomparison and evaluation study for single-column models. Each of the nineteen participating models was operated with its own physics package, including land-surface, radiation and turbulent mixing schemes, for a full diurnal cycle selected from the Cabauw observatory archive. By carefully prescribing the temporal evolution of the forcings on the vertical column, the models could be evaluated against observations. We focus on the gross features of the stable boundary layer (SBL), such as the onset of evening momentum decoupling, the 2-m minimum temperature, the evolution of the inertial oscillation and the morning transition. New process diagrams are introduced to interpret the variety of model results and the relative importance of processes in the SBL; the diagrams include the results of a number of sensitivity runs performed with one of the models. The models are characterized in terms of thermal coupling to the soil, longwave radiation and turbulent mixing. It is shown that differences in longwave radiation schemes among the models have only a small effect on the simulations; however, there are significant variations in downward radiation due to different boundary-layer profiles of temperature and humidity. The differences in modelled thermal coupling to the land surface are large and explain most of the variations in 2-m air temperature and longwave incoming radiation among models. Models with strong turbulent mixing overestimate the boundary-layer height, underestimate the wind speed at 200 m, and give a relatively large downward sensible heat flux. The result is that 2-m air temperature is relatively insensitive to turbulent mixing intensity. Evening transition times spread 1.5 h around the observed time of transition, with later transitions for models with coarse resolution. Time of onset in the morning transition spreads 2 h around the observed transition time. With this case, the morning transition appeared to be difficult to study, no relation could be found between the studied processes, and the variation in the time of the morning transition among the models.     

Large-Eddy Simulation Of Radiation Fog

In order to study the three-dimensional structure of radiation fogand to obtain a basic understanding of its generation mechanism,a numerical experiment is performed with a large-eddysimulation model and compared with the observation at Cabauw in the Netherlands. After confirming that the results are insatisfactory agreement with the observations, the structure of thefog and its generation mechanism are examined in more detail.Before the fog forms, the atmosphere is stable and an inversionlayer exists almost adjacent to the ground surface. As the fog grows, however, the stratification is destabilized and a mixed layerdevelops gradually. The longwave radiative cooling near thefog top contributes to the destabilization more than thecondensational heating does.The evolution of the fog can be classified into three stagesaccording to the behaviour of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE):formation, development, and dissipation stages.The fog layer has different flow structures at each stage.During the formation stage, longitudinal rolls similar tostreaks in channel flows appear near the ground surface.The development stage is characterized by an initiation oftransverse bands due to Kelvin–Helmholtz instability anda sudden increase of TKE. During the dissipation stage, longitudinalrolls and polygonal cells due to convective instability are organized.     

安徽沿长江东部春季一次大范围雾天气过程诊断分析

利用地面气象观测资料、高空探测资料、NCEP再分析资料、芜湖市边界层风廓线雷达资料和高速公路气象观测站资料,分析了2012年3月6日安徽省沿长江东部大范围雾天气过程形成的环流背景及雾生消的物理条件。结果表明：安徽沿江东部地区此次春季大范围雾的性质为辐射雾,雾发生时雾区上空为西到西南风为主,无明显冷空气影响,地面为高压控制的均压场,有利于雾的生成和维持。由雾生消的物理条件可知,近地面水汽条件较好和长波辐射降温造成的水汽凝结是此次大范围雾形成的重要原因。地面辐射降温形成的近地面逆温层有利于雾的维持,且随着近地面逆温层的抬升,雾层变厚并发展。低空的逆温层则形成稳定的层结,阻止水汽向上传输。近地面风速大小合适,风垂直切变小,低层有湍流,中层无明显上升运动,构成雾形成的有利动力条件;而湿层变厚又阻止了水汽向高层交换,有利于雾的生成和维持。日出后,太阳辐射增强,有利于雾发生和维持的地面辐射降温、逆温和动力条件逐渐消失,雾逐渐消散。     

A numerical study of second-order turbulent moments in the stably stratified nocturnal boundary layer

The structures and the vertical profiles of turbulent variance and covariance of the stably stratified boundary layer (SBL) are simulated with a second-order closure turbulence model. The results confirm that the vertical profiles of the dimensionless turbulence variance and covariance can be well represented by the form F = A(1 - Z / h)x. Here h is the height of SBL. and both exponent a and coefficient A are the functions of terrain, baroclinicity, radiation cooling and the state of temporal development of SBL. Comparing with Minnesota and Cabauw experiment data, we have analysed the value of a and expounded the main reasons that great difference in a exists among different literatures.     

Characteristics of the Boundary Layer Structure of Sea Fog on the Coast of Southern China

Using boundary layer data with regard to sea fog observed at the Science Experiment Base for Marine Meteorology at Bohe,Guangdong Province,the structure of the atmospheric boundary layer and the characteristics of the tops of the fog and the clouds were analyzed.In addition,the effects of advection,radiation,and turbulence during sea fog were also investigated.According to the stability definition of saturated,wet air,the gradient of the potential pseudo-equivalent temperature equal to zero was defined as the thermal turbulence interface.There is evidence to suggest that two layers of turbulence exist in sea fog.Thermal turbulence produced by long-wave radiation is prevalent above the thermal turbulence interface,whereas mechanical turbulence aroused by wind shear is predominant below the interface.The height of the thermal turbulence interface was observed between 180 m and 380 m.Three important factors are closely related to the development of the top of the sea fog:(1) the horizontal advection of the water vapor,(2) the long-wave radiation of the fog top,and(3) the movement of the vertical turbulence.Formation,development,and dissipation are the three possible phases of the evolution of the boundary-layer structure during the sea fog season.In addition,the thermal turbulence interface is the most significant turbulence interface during the formation and development periods;it is maintained after sea fog rises into the stratus layer.     

Radiation Fog. Part I: Observations of Stability and Drop Size Distributions

Data from several cases of radiation fog occurring at the Met Office field site at Cardington, Bedfordshire, UK have been analyzed with a view to elucidating the typical evolution in its static stability from formation to dissipation. Typically the early stages of radiation fog are characterized by a stable thermal profile and a relatively shallow depth. However, when the fog reached approximately 100 m depth it was observed to become optically thick (to longwave radiation), with a subsequent change over several hours to a saturated adiabatic stability profile. At this time turbulence levels were seen to increase significantly. The mechanisms involved appear to be radiative cooling from fog top and a positive heat flux to the atmosphere from the soil. The importance of this change in stability for numerical modelling of fog episodes is discussed. Several case studies are made to gain some insight into how common this transition is. Droplet spectra were measured at 2-m height for many of the cases considered, and their evolution is discussed. It is found that distributions fall into an initial phase with small drop sizes (approximately ≤ 10 μm diameter) and concentration, and a mature phase with the appearance of much larger drop sizes with a mean diameter of approximately 15−20 μm. It is found that the appearance of the mature phase does not coincide with the change in stability from stable to saturated adiabatic, but there is some evidence that once a saturated adiabatic profile is established, the droplet spectra variations are significantly less than for the stable period. The observed evolution of these spectra brings into question the suitability of microphysical schemes that assume constant spectral shape, drop diameter, and number density.     

Large-Eddy Simulations of the Stable Boundary Layer Using the Standard Kolmogorov Theory: Range of Applicability

Large-eddy simulations (LES) of the Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer (SBL) are difficult because the turbulence is not isotropic for strong stratification and the Kolmogorov theory might be no longer valid. This fact compells us to work on modifications to the subgrid turbulence schemes, although there is not any widely accepted theory on anisotropic turbulence. In this work, a LES model is used to see what range of stable stratification can still be simulated with a subgrid turbulence scheme using the Kolmogorov theory for the dissipation. Twenty simulations of increasing stability have been performed using a horizontal resolution of 5 m. The model is able to simulate weakly and moderately stable conditions and experiences runaway cooling for strong stability. The goodness of the successful simulations is inspected through comparison to observations from the experimental campaigns SABLES-98 and CASES-99. Other supplementary tests have been performed on the resolution and the surface boundary condition.     

A Numerical Study of Sea-Fog Formation over Cold Sea Surface Using a One-Dimensional Turbulence Model Coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting Model

The formation mechanism of a cold sea-fog case observed over the Yellow Sea near the western coastal area of the Korean Peninsula is investigated using numerical simulation with a one-dimensional turbulence model coupled with a three-dimensional regional model. The simulation was carried out using both Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches; both approaches produced sea fog in a manner consistent with observation. For the selected cold sea-fog case, the model results suggested the following: as warm and moist air flows over a cold sea surface, the lower part of the air column is modified by the turbulent exchange of heat and moisture and the diurnal variation in radiation. The modified boundary-layer structure represents a typical stable thermally internal boundary layer. Within the stable thermally internal boundary layer, the air temperature is decreased by radiative cooling and turbulent heat exchange but the moisture loss due to the downward vapour flux in the lowest part of the air column is compensated by moisture advection and therefore the dewpoint temperature does not decrease as rapidly as does the air temperature. Eventually water vapour saturation is achieved and the cold sea fog forms in the thermal internal boundary layer.     

城市气溶胶对边界层热量收支的影响

本文利用长、短波辐射模式和地面能量平衡模式，计算了烟雾层状况下的边界层和地面热量收支情况，计算表明，烟地务层的全天辐射效应使低层大气上部辐射能量收入为正，中下部辐射能量收入为负，总的结果是使低层大气稍稍冷却并使稳定增加，计算还表明，烟雾层造成的地面接收短波辐射能量的减少量可由大气逆辐射的增加量来补偿，烟雾层使得地面温度振幅变小。