Population growth and urbanization in Latin America

The population of Latin America will be increasing by 130 % between 1970 and the year 2000. Due to excessive rural exodus the urban population grows almost twice as fast as the rural does. The urbanization of the subcontinent must be regarded as being the dominant spatial process in Latin America. It results in fundamental changes of the structure and the way of life of the population as well as in the size and character of the settlements. Three case studies (Popayán/Colombia, Sucre/Bolivia and Santiago/Chile) show that a process of westernization can be observed within the analogous to their size, in the course of which the compact structure of the colonial town pattern is succeeded by a sectorially or cellularly arranged cityorganism. From today's point of view a definite judgement on urbanization as a relevant phenomenon of development cannot yet be made. It can be stated, however, that the southern countries of Latin America which have been urbanized the most show distinct signs of a social and economic “take off”.     

Natural hazards and disasters in Latin America

Natural hazards and disasters occur widely throughout the world. Disasters can be costly both in terms of human lives and property and ecosystem disruption. Higher death tolls in developing nations may be the result of poverty, rapid population growth, urbanization, and inadequate communication facilities. The purpose of this study is to show patterns of major catastrophic events in Latin America so that their impacts can be evaluated and compared.Latin America was selected because of the variety of recent events commanding wide attention: earthquakes in Mexico, volcanic eruptions in Colombia, hurricanes and floods in Haiti, and drought and mudflows in Brazil. Spatial and temporal aspects of natural disasters are presented in nine tables and 21 maps. The tables give selected disaster data by country for volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, and atmospheric disturbances from the 16th century to 1989. Most data is derived from disasters occurring during the 20th century and include number of events, people killed, people affected, and U.S.$ damage. Maps show environmental settings for disasters and allow detailed comparison among countries. Floods account for the greatest number of major events in the most countries, earthquakes cause the most deaths and damage, while droughts affect the most people. Peru surpasses all others in susceptibility to major disasters. Assessment of vulnerability to hazards, improved economic opportunities, and an increased social and political concern for poor people should help reduce future losses from natural disasters in Latin America.     

拉丁美洲铝土矿地质特征及资源潜力

介绍拉丁美洲铝土矿资源概况、地质特征及成因类型。拉丁美洲铝土矿资源主要分在巴西、苏里南、牙买加、圭亚那、委内瑞拉等国家,储量为60.3×10~8t,占世界铝土矿总储量的21.54%。巴西为拉丁美洲最大的铝土矿生产国和出口国。拉丁美洲铝土矿成因类型主要为红土型和岩溶型2种,主要的铝土矿矿山有45座。牙买加岛弧、圭亚那地盾、中巴西地盾、圣弗朗西斯科地盾为4个铝土矿勘查开发潜力区。     

Gated communities and urban fragmentation in Latin America: the Brazilian experience

Since the mid-1970s, gated housing areas of the privileged have been spreading in Latin American cities. They have to be seen as a visible consequence of the deepening social disparities within Latin American societies and the resulting fragmentation of urban space. Condomínios fechados (Brazil) or barrios cerrados (Argentina) can be typified following different criteria, such as formation, location, size, fittings, construction typology, as well as social structure. Three groups of actors influence the process of their expansion: the real estate companies, for which the new form of living offers an attractive market segment, the target groups, whose increasing expectations regarding security and living comfort need to be met, and the public authorities, who have to find adequate responses concerning the further orientation of urban development. Based on case studies from Brazil, the paper will discuss the different phases of gated community expansion and the reasons why this is happening. Their internal structure and differentiation, as well as consequences for socio-spatial development and urban planning will also be dealt with.     

Dimensions of environmental justice in anti-gold mining movements in Latin America

The present article examines two Latin American gold mining conflicts, one in the city of Esquel (Patagonia in Argentina) and the other in Pascua–Lama (Chilean border with Argentina). We identify the emergence of three dimensions of environmental justice (distribution, recognition, participation) in the anti-mining movements of these two cases. The study finds that some dimensions of justice appear first (participation and recognition), while distribution emerges later, as movements jump scales engaging with national and international networks that provide a systemic perspective of the conflicts. The findings are consistent with other studies that refer to environmental justice as multi-scalar and context related. We also point to the relevance of studying decision-making procedures and jumping scales to understand how environmental justice claims are framed in resource extraction conflicts.     

Labour-Centred Development in Latin America: Two cases of alternative development

The ‘pink tide’ in Latin America is drawing increasing criticisms from the political left for its inability to confront existing socio-structural inequalities. This article contributes to these debates in two ways. First, as a means of understanding better the development strategies that have been followed by left-leaning governments, it highlights and critiques what it labels Elite Development Theory (EDT) encompassing Washington Consensus and Statist Political Economy. It shows how despite its self-stated objectives – the amelioration of the conditions of the poor and their uplifting – EDT is grounded in elite assumptions about social change: States and corporations are posited as prime-movers in the development process while collective efforts of labouring classes to pursue their own developmental strategies are ignored and/or de-legitimated. Exploitation, oppression and the ideological delegitimation of labouring class collective actions form the core of EDT. The second contribution of this article is to argue for an alternative form of what it terms Labour-Centred Development (LCD). This argument is supported through an examination of the Chilean cordones industriales and Argentinian empresas recuperadas por sus trabajadores (ERT) movements. The article concludes that whilst LCD may be a rarity, its existence offers the basis for alternative development theory and strategy.     

拉丁美洲大地构造轮廓、成矿区带和成矿系列

拉丁美洲是全世界矿产资源最丰富的地区之一。总结该地区的成矿地质背景、划分成矿区带、研究成矿系列将对进一步规划勘查和开发起到指导作用。在大地构造轮廓方面分成3个构造亚域,对次级构造单元的划分方案进行了探讨。在成矿区带划分方面,按5级成矿区带的划分方案,对一级成矿域和二级成矿省进行了划分,三级及其以下的成矿单元,对前人的划分方案作了扼要的比较。在成矿系列方面以大地构造演化为主导,以成矿作用和矿床类型为标志,将有内在成因联系的一系列矿床整合成一个成矿系列,并细分为成矿亚系列和成矿组合。     

Natural resource exploitation in Latin America espoiliation or tool for development?

The exploitation of natural resources in Latin American countries has become one of the most controversial issues of contemporary development. Three positions arise: 1) a position that opens the development of natural resources to foreign priorities and capitals; 2) a position that opposes any kind of development if it is not conducted by the state, even if the state lacks the financial resources to do so; and 3) a position that sees advantages in negotiating the development of resources with external partnership but reserves for the state the determination of priorities and the leading role in the exploitation. The third position assumes the existence of a responsible government commited to safeguarding national interests. Unfortunately, this last assumption is not very operative with Latin American governments which seldom have standing policies concerning natural resources, which leaves them open to assaults from private national and international interests.Contrary to opposite views, it has been demonstrated that the development of natural resources brings about stimulation of regional economies and relocation of populations toward resource frontiers. Opposing the development of such areas of resources is to negate the concept of progress and to deepen chronic poverty.     

Population growth and land degradation

The author examines the relationship between population growth and land degradation in the developing world. The focus is on the process of desertification in arid regions.     

Climatic constraints for the development of the far south of Latin America

The climatic constraints of the southernmost tip of South America (45° S to 57° S) is examined and compared with the corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere.Southern summers are cooler than northern summers by 5.5 to 6°C owing to subantarctic influences and constantly-blowing oceanic winds. Although frost and snowfall are less common than in the northern hemisphere, they can occur well into the summer months. Cold air exports from the antarctic and the location of the antarctic convergence near 60° S explain the steady coolness of ocean and air masses. The constant winds cause tree deformations and inhibit vegetation growth because of the negative influence that winds faster than 4 m/sec have on photosynthesis efficiency. The absence of long-lasting warm summer periods that would stimulate plant growth is due to scarce or weak anticyclonic thrusts and to the permanent west wind drift. To be added to this is a chronic shortage of air humidity on the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes and plains which again curtails crop growth. On the western slopes, on the other hand, continuous orographic rains prove also a hindrance to cultivation. Therefore, only north of 42° S do conditions for permanent cultivation become optimal.     

Preliminary analysis of the development of the Carbon Tracker system in Latin America and the Caribbean

The Carbon Tracker system will play a major role in understanding CO₂ sinks and sources, gas exchange between the atmosphere and oceans, and gas emissions from forest fres and fossil fuels in Latin America and the Caribbean. This paper discusses the trends in carbon fluxes in the biosphere and ocean, as well as emissions from forest fres and fossil fuel use in the above-mentioned region, using the Carbon Tracker (CT) system. From 2000 to 2009, the mean carbon fluxes for the biosphere, fossil fuel use, wildfires and the ocean in Latin America and the Caribbean were −0.03, 0.41, 0.296, −0.061 Pg C/yr, respectively, and −0.02, 0.117, 0.013, −0.003 Pg C/yr, respectively, in Mexico. The mean net carbon flux for Latin America and the Caribbean was 0.645 Pg C/yr, and 0.126 Pg C/yr for Mexico. The terrestrial sinks in Latin America and the Caribbean are dominated by the forest, agricultural, grass and shrub regions, as well as the Andes mountain range and the net surface-atmosphere fluxes including fossil fuel are dominant in regions around large cities in Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and areas undergoing deforestation along the Amazon River. The results confirm that forest fres are an important source of CO₂ in Latin America and the Caribbean. In addition, we can confirm that policies encouraging the use of ethanol in light vehicles in Brazil have helped to decrease carbon emissions from fossil fuel, and assume the effects of the Proárbol program on carbon sinks from the biosphere and from fire emissions sources in Mexico. Based on this analysis, we are confident that the CT system will play a major role in Latin America and the Caribbean as a scientific tool to understand the uptake and release of CO₂ from terrestrial ecosystems, fossil fuel use and the oceans, and for long-term monitoring of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.     

Population growth and food supply margin in Pakistan

Conclusion Population growth in Pakistan is alarming. The long and continuing shortage of foodgrains at intervals and increasing competition for land use have resulted in deterioration in yield per hectare, and low reproduction of livestock, although hard struggle is going on for self sufficiency. The margin in food supply has arrived even in those areas where the production has been abundant, and vulnerable to crop failure and other emergency causes. Provision against these dangers call for the maintenance of adequate national reserves, which can be brought into action at an early stage of the emergency.The area under agriculture can be increased through improved programmes of soil conservation and development of barani (rain fed areas) with cost-benefit consideration. Several million hectares of barani areas have fertile soils and are suitable for agricultural development. It has been estimated that 45 billion m³ of river water flows into the Arabian Sea. A part of the water sources is properly harnessed and could possibly change the economic conditions of the barani region. A number of regions are covered by hard texture of the soil, mechanization will have to be introduced in these areas to increase production much beyond the level of margin. Soil conservation measures have already been initiated and in some cases demonstrated to farmers, but the reclaimed virgin lands up to 1973 were very little, just 46.5 ha of virgin lands and 72 ha of cultivated area from the Soan and Potwar uplands. It is expected that 300,000 ha of cultivated area, 10,000 ha of gullied land will be reclaimed through soil conservation methods in the current Fifth Year Plan.Pakistan has great water potential. The remedy lies in wise judicious and scientific water management. Inadequate natural and artificial drainage systems are causing water-logging and salinity. An accelerated programme for recovering lost land is already in operation. Many land reforms were introduced from time to time, but the production result is not of great significance. Restrictions were imposed on consolidated holdings. The economic level of such holding above subsistence have not yet been taken into consideration. It is, therefore, necessary, to make a thorough analysis of agricultural problems, particularly with the foodgrain crops, with reference to population growth, the efforts should continue till the food supply occupies the supreme position by increasing production and reducing the rate of population growth by adopting socio-economic methods.     

The impact of economic growth,industrial structure and urbanization on carbon emission intensity in China

China’s macroeconomic policy framework has been determined to ensure steady growth, adjust the industrial structure and advance the socioeconomic reforms in recent years. And urbanization is supposed to be one of the most important socioeconomic reform directions. Meanwhile, China also committed to reduce carbon emissions intensity by 2020, then it should be noted that what kind of impact of these policy orientations on carbon emission intensity. Therefore, based on the historical data from 1978 to 2011, this paper quantitatively studies the impact of China’s economic growth, industrial structure and urbanization on carbon emission intensity. The results indicate that, first, there is long-term cointegrating relationship between carbon emission intensity and other factors. And the increase in the share of tertiary industry [i.e., the ratio of tertiary industry value added to gross domestic product (GDP)] and economic growth (here we use the real GDP per capita) play significant roles in curbing carbon emission intensity, while the promotion of population urbanization (i.e., the share of population living in the urban regions of total population) may lead to carbon emission intensity growth. Second, there exists significant one-way causality running from the urbanization rate and economic growth to carbon emission intensity, respectively. Third, among the three drivers, economic growth proves the main influencing factor of carbon emission intensity changes during the sample period.     

辩证审视土地城镇化与人口城镇化之间的关系

评述了土地城镇化与人口城镇化的内涵及其度量方法的进展;讨论了两者的互动演进关系;分析了我国土地过度城镇化与人口"半城镇化"现象产生的根本原因。指出将小城镇发展视为助推我国土地过度城镇化的主要模式是欠公允的,中国大城市建成区的扩张才是助推土地过度城镇化的主要模式;应当认真吸取美国等发达国家城市过度向郊外扩张的教训,运用集约型城市规划和建设的理念,着力打造资源和能源消耗少、土地空间占用低、环境负荷小、产出效率高的集约型郊区新城及其城镇网络体系。     

Looking for the critical geographer, or why bodies and geographies matter to the emergence of critical geographies of Latin America

This paper argues that critical geographies of Latin America begin with an analysis of how and why the bodies and geographies of geographers themselves matter. To focus on the geographer as a producer of knowledge is not to advocate the kind of navel gazing so abhorrent to many scholars. Rather, it is an effort to call attention to and critically assess how the geographer's embodied social position and geographic location inform the production of knowledge about and representations of Latin American people and nature. To illustrate how and why bodies and geographies matter, I draw from feminist and post-colonial theory and include examples from my own experiences and those of other researchers doing fieldwork in Latin American countries. I conclude by exploring the notion of situated knowledge as a tactic that writes bodies and geographies into academic texts. Ultimately, situating knowledge represents a political intervention and contribution to the broader goals of emancipatory politics shared by critical human geographers.