A mechanism for anomalous decline in radon precursory to an earthquake

Mechanisms for interpreting anomalous decreases in radon in ground water prior to earthquakes are examined with the help of a case study to show that radon potentially is a sensitive tracer of strain changes in the crust preceding an earthquake. The 2003 Chengkung earthquake of magnitude (M) 6.8 on December 10, 2003, was the strongest earthquake near the Chengkung area in eastern Taiwan since 1951. The Antung radon-monitoring station was located 20 km from the epicenter. Approximately 65 d prior to the 2003 Chengkung earthquake, precursory changes in radon concentration in ground water were observed. Specifically, radon decreased from a background level of 780 pCi/L to a minimum of 330 pCi/L. The Antung hot spring is situated in a fractured block of tuffaceous sandstone surrounded by ductile mudstone. Given these geological conditions, we hypothesized that the dilation of brittle rock mass occurred at a rate faster than the recharge of pore water and gas saturation developed in newly created cracks preceding the earthquake. Radon partitioning into the gas phase may explain the anomalous decrease of radon precursory to the 2003 Chengkung earthquake. To support the hypothesis, vapor-liquid, two-phase radon-partitioning experiments were conducted at formation temperature (60 degrees C) using formation brine from the Antung hot spring. Experimental data indicated that the decrease in radon required a gas saturation of 10% developed in rock cracks. The observed decline in radon can be correlated with the increase in gas saturation and then with the volumetric strain change for a given fracture porosity.     

Correlating Precursory Declines in Groundwater Radon with Earthquake Magnitude

Both studies at the Antung hot spring in eastern Taiwan and at the Paihe spring in southern Taiwan confirm that groundwater radon can be a consistent tracer for strain changes in the crust preceding an earthquake when observed in a low‐porosity fractured aquifer surrounded by a ductile formation. Recurrent anomalous declines in groundwater radon were observed at the Antung D1 monitoring well in eastern Taiwan prior to the five earthquakes of magnitude (M_w): 6.8, 6.1, 5.9, 5.4, and 5.0 that occurred on December 10, 2003; April 1, 2006; April 15, 2006; February 17, 2008; and July 12, 2011, respectively. For earthquakes occurring on the longitudinal valley fault in eastern Taiwan, the observed radon minima decrease as the earthquake magnitude increases. The above correlation has been proven to be useful for early warning local large earthquakes. In southern Taiwan, radon anomalous declines prior to the 2010 M_w 6.3 Jiasian, 2012 M_w 5.9 Wutai, and 2012 M_L 5.4 Kaohsiung earthquakes were also recorded at the Paihe spring. For earthquakes occurring on different faults in southern Taiwan, the correlation between the observed radon minima and the earthquake magnitude is not yet possible.     

Static and push-pull methods using radon-222 to characterize dense nonaqueous phase liquid saturations

Naturally occurring radon in ground water can potentially be used as an in situ partitioning tracer to characterize dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) saturations. The static method involves comparing radon concentrations in water samples from DNAPL-contaminated and noncontaminated portions of an aquifer, while the push-pull method involves the injection (push) and extraction (pull) of a radon-free test solution from a single well. In the presence of DNAPL, radon concentrations during the pull phase are retarded, with retardation manifested in greater dispersion of radon concentrations relative to a conservative tracer. The utility of these methods was investigated in the laboratory using a physical aquifer model (PAM). Static and push-pull tests were performed before and after contamination of the PAM sediment pack with trichloroethene (TCE), and after alcohol cosolvent flushing and pump-and-treat remediation. Numerical simulations were used to estimate the retardation factor for radon in push-pull tests. Radon partitioning was observed in static and push-pull tests conducted after TCE contamination. Calculated TCE saturations ranged up to 1.4% (static test) and 14.1% (push-pull test). Post-remediation tests showed decreases in TCE saturations. The results show that radon is sensitive to changes in DNAPL saturation in space and time. However, the methods are sensitive to DNAPL saturation heterogeneity, test location, sample size, and test design. The influence of these factors on test results, as well as the apparent overestimation of the retardation factor in push-pull tests, warrant further investigation.     

Characterization of a hydraulically induced crystalline‐rock fracture

Hydraulic fracturing has become an important technique for enhancing the permeability of hydrocarbon source rocks and increasing aquifer transmissivity in many hard rock environments where natural fractures are limited, yet little is known about the nature or behaviour of these hydraulically induced fractures as conduits to flow and transport. We propose that these fractures tend to be smooth based on observed hydraulic and transport behaviour. In this investigation a multi‐faceted approach was used to quantify the properties and characteristics of an isolated hydraulically induced fracture in crystalline rocks. Packers were used to isolate the fracture that is penetrated by two separate observation wells located approximately 33 m apart. A series of aquifer tests and an induced gradient tracer test were performed to better understand the nature of this fracture. Aquifer test results indicate that full recovery is slow because of the overall low permeability of the crystalline rocks. Drawdown tests indicate that the fracture has a transmissivity of 1–2 m²/day and a specific storage on the order of 2–9 × 10^?7/m. Analysis of a potassium–bromide tracer test break through curve shows classic Fickian behaviour with minimal tailing analogous to parallel plate flow. Virtually all of the tracer was recovered, and the breakthrough curve dilution indicates that the swept area is only about 11% of a radial flow field and the estimated aperture is ≤0.5 mm, which implies a narrow linear flow region. These outcomes suggest that transport within these hydraulically induced ‘smooth’ fractures in crystalline rocks is rapid with minimal mixing, small local velocity fluctuations and no apparent diffusion into the host rock or secondary fractures. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

汶川8.0级地震前水氡浓度的临界慢化现象研究

近年来,临界慢化(Critical slowing down)现象在揭示复杂动力系统是否趋于临界性灾变方面展示了重要潜力.本文基于临界慢化的概念,将其用于水氡浓度观测资料的处理.以2008年5月12日汶川8.0级地震前龙门山断裂带破裂段及附近地区水氡浓度观测点资料为例,分别计算了表征临界慢化现象的自相关系数和方差.结果表明,汶川8.0级地震前,不同台站的水氡浓度震前都存在明显的临界慢化现象,这表明临界慢化现象可能是强地震发生前的一个早期信号.将临界慢化理论引入地震前兆资料的研究,对深入认识地震前兆机理、判定前兆异常所处阶段以及提高地震预测水平都具有重要的现实意义和科学价值.     

姑咱海子泉气氡脱气技术系统改造效能分析

使用姑咱海子泉气氡观测数据,分析在不同脱气—集气（溅落式和自吸式）装置下观测数据的地震前兆异常反映。溅落式脱气装置在脱气过程中无空气混入,脱气效率较低,但地震前气氡观测异常明显;自吸式脱气装置在脱气过程中有大量空气混入,脱气效率相对较高,在地震前气氡异常不明显。分析认为：①空气混入起到稀释作用,致使气氡含量降低;②脱气装置前放置恒水位槽,将地震前泉水深部自然逸出气体释放,造成异常信息减少。     

Assessing radial transmissivity variation in heterogeneous aquifers using analytical techniques

Pumping tests are one of the most commonly used in situ testing techniques for assessing aquifer hydraulic properties. Numerous researches have been conducted to predict the effects of aquifer heterogeneity on the groundwater levels during pumping tests. The objectives of the present work were as follows: (1) to predict drawdown conditions and to estimate aquifer properties during pumping tests undertaken in radially symmetric heterogeneous aquifers, and (2) to identify a method for assessing the transmissivity field along the radial coordinate in radially symmetric and fully heterogeneous transmissivity fields. The first objective was achieved by expanding an existing analytical drawdown formulation that was valid for a radially symmetric confined aquifer with two concentric zones around the pumping well to an N concentric zone confined aquifer having a constant transmissivity value within each zone. The formulation was evaluated for aquifers with three and four concentric zones to assess the effects of the transmissivity field on the drawdown conditions. The specific conditions under which aquifer properties could be identified using traditional methods of analysis were also evaluated. The second objective was achieved by implementing the inverse solution algorithm (ISA), which was developed for petroleum reservoirs to groundwater aquifer settings. The results showed that the drawdown values are influenced by a volumetric integral of a weighting function and the transmissivity field within the cone of depression. The weighting function migrates in tandem with the expanding cone of depression. The ability of the ISA to predict radially symmetric and log‐normally distributed transmissivity fields was assessed against analytical and numerical benchmarks. The results of this investigation indicated that the ISA method is a viable technique for evaluating the radial transmissivity variations of heterogeneous aquifer settings. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

地下水中氡含量离散度变化与地震的短临前兆

国内外已有较多的观测资料表明,强震前地下水中氡浓度会出现异常变化.为了深入研究这些变化,进一步提取可靠的前兆信息,寻找定量判据,作者最近研制了水化前兆数据处理专用程序包,对地下水氡含量观测资料进行处理.用一阶差分法发现,在一些观测条件较好的水点上,震前氡测值出现了离散度加大的现象,这种现象有可能成为判别短临异常的一种新的判定指标.      

丰满台水氡异常特征分析

对蚌埠地震台2020年4月15日以来出现的水氡数据转折下降—恢复上升的变化趋势进行分析,文章通过环境调查、气象因素对比、抽水取样化验后和研究得出：本次水氡变化与气温水温呈正相关关系,相关性显著,气温引起水温的变化,进而引起气体的溶解度和脱气率改变,从而引起水氡测值的变化。结合往年震例分析结果认为,气温可能不是引起水氡测值下降的单一因素,应该是环境干扰与地震前兆信息共同作用的结果,而水氡与气温之间的相关系数降低,与周边发生地震有一定的关联性。     

共和地震前兆起伏加剧的层次性与大震的跟踪预报

基于大震前前兆起伏加剧具有普适性的特征，本文研究了１９９０年共和Ｍｓ７．０地震前地震频次、小震调制比、地下水中氧含量及泉水流量等异常起伏加剧的多层次性。结果表明，各台大多数前兆异常可分出３个层次。综合分析各台前兆异常的起伏加剧现象，可以发现，该次地震前异常群体的演变过程可分为４个层次，本文结合孕震过程对４个层次进行了分析。根据大震前兆起伏加剧的多层次性可以对大震进行跟踪预报。     

Static and dynamic conceptual model of a complexly fractured crystalline rock aquifer

A conceptual model of anisotropic and dynamic permeability is developed from hydrogeologic and hydromechanical characterization of a foliated, complexly fractured, crystalline rock aquifer at Gates Pond, Berlin, Massachusetts. Methods of investigation include aquifer‐pumping tests, long‐term hydrologic monitoring, fracture characterization, downhole heat‐pulse flow meter measurements, in situ extensometer testing, and earth tide analysis. A static conceptual model is developed from observations of depth‐dependent and anisotropic permeability that effectively compartmentalizes the aquifer as a function of foliation intensity. Superimposed on the static model is dynamic permeability as a function of hydraulic head in which transient bulk aquifer transmissivity is proportional to changes in hydraulic head due to hydromechanical coupling. The dynamic permeability concept is built on observations that fracture aperture changes as a function of hydraulic head, as measured during in situ extensometer testing of individual fractures, and observed changes in bulk aquifer transmissivity as determined from earth tides during seasonal changes in hydraulic head, with higher transmissivity during periods of high hydraulic head, and lower transmissivity during periods of relatively lower hydraulic head. A final conceptual model is presented that captures both the static and dynamic properties of the aquifer. The workflow presented here demonstrates development of a conceptual framework for building numerical models of complexly fractured, foliated, crystalline rock aquifers that includes both a static model to describe the spatial distribution of permeability as a function of fracture type and foliation intensity and a dynamic model that describes how hydromechanical coupling impacts permeability magnitude as a function of hydraulic head fluctuation. This model captures important geologic controls on permeability magnitude, anisotropy, and transience and therefor offers potentially more reliable history matching and forecasts of different water management strategies, such as resource evaluation, well placement, permeability prediction, and evaluating remediation strategies.     

甘肃地区水氡(流量)异常与周边中强地震的关系探讨

甘肃及周边地区是一个中强震多发区,该地区的前兆异常对青藏高原北缘地区强震活动有着敏感的反映.1980年以来该区发生5.0级以上地震20余次.多次地震前,甘肃地区的水氡资料出现了大量的中短期异常.分析了甘肃省目前仍在继续观测、观测环境较好、仪器稳定的水氡测点在甘肃及周边地区发生的中强地震前资料的变化情况,发现多数测点在多...     

灰色预测系统在唐山地震前兆数据处理中的应用

本文应用灰色预测系统GM(1,1)模型,对宝坻等四个台唐山地震前地电、水化、水位、形变等手段的月均值资料进行了处理。结果表明:宝坻地电、管庄水氡、宁河俵口水位及牛口峪定点水准都出现了不同程度的震前异常变化,从而证明了灰色预测系统在地震前兆数据的处理中有着一定的应用价值。     

The response of water level in the YuZ-5 well, Kamchatka to the magnitude 9.3, Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of December 26, 2004

Forced and free oscillations of water level were recorded in the YuZ-5 well, Kamchatka due to the passage of seismic waves from the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of December 26, 2004, M _w = 9.3, hypocentral distance 8250 km. The greatest amplitude of water level oscillations, at least 5 cm, was observed during the onset of seismic surface waves with a typical period of 20–50 s. The total duration of the forced and free water level oscillations was about ten hours. The available theoretical models that describe oscillations of water level in a well due to seismic waves and rapid injection of water were used to estimate the transmissivity of the aquifer. The values obtained exceed by at least two orders of magnitude the transmissivity derived from pumping test measurements. A hypothesis was proposed to explain the temporary increase in aquifer transmissivity during the passage of seismic waves by invoking disturbances in the structure of the crack-pore space and a sharp increase in aquifer rock permeability.     

222Rn as Natural Tracer for LNAPL Recovery in a Crude Oil‐Contaminated Aquifer

The objective of this study was to investigate whether ²²²Rn in groundwater can be used as a tracer for light non‐aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) quantification at a field site treated by dual‐phase LNAPL removal. After the break of a pipeline, 5 ha of soil in the nature reserve Coussouls de Crau in southern France was contaminated by 5100 m³ of crude oil. Part of this oil seeped into the underlying gravel aquifer and formed a floating oil body of about 3.9 ha. The remediation consists of plume management by hydraulic groundwater barriers and LNAPL extraction in the source zone. ²²²Rn measurements were performed in 21 wells in and outside the source zone during 15 months. In uncontaminated groundwater, the radon activity was relatively constant and remained always >11 Bq/L. The variability of radon activity measurements in wells affected by the pump‐and‐skim system was consistent with the measurements in wells that were not impacted by the system. The mean activities in wells in the source zone were, in general, significantly lower than in wells upgradient of the source zone, owing to partitioning of ²²²Rn into the oil phase. The lowest activities were found in zones with high non‐aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) recovery. LNAPL saturations around each recovery well were furthermore calculated during a period of high groundwater level, using a laboratory‐determined crude oil–water partitioning coefficient of 38.5 ± 2.9. This yielded an estimated volume of residual crude oil of 309 ± 93 m³ below the capillary fringe. We find that ²²²Rn is a useful and cheap groundwater tracer for finding zones of good LNAPL recovery in an aquifer treated by dual‐phase LNAPL removal, but that quantification of NAPL saturation using Rn is highly uncertain.     

下关塘子铺温泉的水文地球化学特征

下关塘子铺温泉自1970年开展水氡观测以来,水氡的前兆异常特征较为明显,对应过多次强烈地震,也成功的预报过一些地震。通过18年的观测实践,证明下关塘子铺温泉是地震观测工作中的一个灵敏点。 为探讨其灵敏原因,近年来围绕温泉、沿西洱河断层普查了一批水点,其中有4个温泉、2个冷泉、地表水两处。测定了水氡、水温、常规水质及溶解气体。企图从水文地球化学特征入手,初步探讨温泉水氡的机理,并进而探讨水氡前兆灵敏性的原因。     

汶川8.0级地震氡观测值震后效应特征初步分析

文中收集了2008年5月12日的四川汶川8.0级地震放射性同位素氡的观测资料, 初步分析了汶川地震氡观测值震后效应的特征。 结果表明, 氡震后效应的观测点大多沿着地震破裂带分布即在震源北侧的北东向与南侧的南北向, 变化以阶变上升型为主, 而且部分观测点发生了可能与氡射气浓度相关的水位或流量同步变化。 截止到2008年10月, 大部分产生震后效应的观测点已经恢复到原来测值状态, 但仍有少部分测点保持震后变化的的高值或低值, 甚至有的测点继续上升。 对氡震后效应的初步统计分析结果, 肯定了氡射气具有对地震波响应的特点, 也提出了研究地球化学组分变化与含水层动力过程的关系等问题, 这有利于氡的地震前兆机理的研究。     

京津冀地区氡的数字化观测及其地震前兆监测效能评估

京津冀地区已建成氡的数字化(气氡)观测井(泉)共12口, 目前正在运行8口, 其中有1口井观测的数值低于仪器检出限, 故实际有效观测井(泉)为7口。 文中系统分析2004年7口井(泉)气氡年、 月、 日动态特征, 根据以往的水氡震例评估其地震中期、 短期与短临前兆异常的可能性, 认为多数井中有可能识别出以破坏年变规律为标志的中期前兆异常, 但很难识别出以阶变或脉冲为特征的短期和短临前兆异常。 文中还对比分析了同一口井(泉)气氡与水氡动态的差异性, 发现气氡的动态稳定性明显不如水氡, 这不利于气氡在地震短期或短临前兆异常监测中发挥作用。     

岷县漳县6.6级地震前天水花牛水氡异常可靠性研究

2013年岷县漳县6.6级地震前甘肃天水花牛的水氡出现了与汶川8.0级地震极为相似的异常变化并在震前已被重点跟踪.为了对花牛水氡2013年出现的异常与岷县漳县地震的关系给出合理的判断,本文分析了花牛水氡正常的趋势背景和年变化形态,给出了正常背景和异常变化的判别指标;分析了花牛水氡的主要影响因素,认为气温是花牛水氡出现年变的主要因素,日降雨量达到一定量级才能引起水氡的短暂变化;着重从水氡测值的可靠性、影响因素的不一致性、多学科前兆变化的协调性、异常的重现性、异常与岷县地震的时空相关性等方面对2013年4月以来的异常进行了详细的分析和论证.研究结果可以判定,2013年4月以来天水花牛水氡出现的异常作为岷县漳县6.6级地震的异常是可信并可靠的.     

四川白玉Ms 5.4地震前陇南中心地震台水化异常分析

2013年1月18日四川省白玉县发生Ms5.4地震,临震前4天左右甘肃陇南中心地震台钻孔倾斜、数字化气氡观测资料出现短临异常现象.钻孔倾斜异常形态趋势转折,持续时间1天;数字化气氡异常形态,加速下降后回升,持续时间3天.