Origin and evolution of hydrothermal fluids in epithermal Pb-Zn-Cu ± Au ± Ag deposits at Koru and Tesbihdere mining districts, Çanakkale,Biga Peninsula,NW Turkey

The Koru and Tesbihdere mining districts in Biga Peninsula, Northwestern Turkey, consist of twelve deposits covering approximately 12 km². The epithermal Au-Ag enriched base metal veins and associated low-grade breccia and stockwork at Koru and Tesbihdere are hosted by Oligocene subaerial and calc-alkaline volcanic rocks including basaltic andesite lavas, dacitic lava-tuffs, rhyolitic lava-domes and tuffs. NW- to N-trending strike-slip faults and E- and NE-trending faults constitute the most important ore-controlling structures in the Koru and Tesbihdere districts respectively. In the Koru mining district, galena is the dominant ore mineral in barite-quartz veins containing sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, enargite and tennantite. According to base metal content, the Tesbihdere mining district can be subdivided into sphalerite-galena dominated Tesbihdere mineralization and chalcopyrite-pyrite dominated Bakır and Kuyu Zones mineralization. Gold is present in small quantities with maximum 3.14 g/t Au values either as free grains in quartz or as micro inclusions in pyrite and galena. The most widespread silver minerals are polybasite, pearceite, argentite and native silver which commonly occur as replacements of galena, sphalerite and pyrite, and other sulfides, or as fillings of microfractures in sulfides and quartz.Microthermometric measurements of primary liquid-rich fluid inclusions in sphalerite, barite and quartz in Koru indicate that the veins were formed at temperatures between 407 and 146 °C from fluids with salinities between 0.7 and 12.5 wt.% equiv. NaCl. Barite from the Tahtalıkuyu, Kuyutaşı and 5^th Viraj mineralization show the highest homogenization temperatures. Fluid inclusion data for ore-stage quartz and sphalerite from the Tesbihdere mining district, indicate that these minerals were deposited at temperatures between 387 and 232 °C from more diluted fluids with moderate salinities between 0.2 and 10.6 wt.% NaCl equiv. Tahtalıkuyu and 5^th Viraj mineralization show only boiling trends while Kuyutaşı, Tesbihdere, Bakır and Kuyu Zones mineralization show both boiling and isothermal mixing trends. The O and H isotope compositions of ore fluids from the Tahtalıkuyu (δ¹⁸O = − 1.40 to 0.25‰; δD = − 72.49 to − 52.68‰) and Kuyutaşı (δ¹⁸O = − 2.29 to 3.59‰; δD = − 90.70 to − 70.93‰) mineralization indicate that there was a major contribution from a magmatic component to ore genesis. Based on 9 quartz samples associated with orebodies at the Tesbihdere mining district, the relatively higher δ¹⁸O and lower δD isotope compositions from hydrothermal fluids could be attributed to a relatively dilute fluid derived by the mixing with meteoric water. The Pb isotope compositions also reveal that most of the lead in both mining districts is derived from the Oligocene-Miocene magmatic rocks, possibly with smaller contributions from the Eocene magmatic rocks.     

The Eastern Black Sea-type volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: Geochemistry,zircon U–Pb geochronology and an overview of the geodynamics of ore genesis

The Meso-Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt provides a key to evaluate the volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits associated with convergent margin tectonics in a Cordilleran-type orogenic belt. Here we present new geological, geochemical and zircon U–Pb geochronological data, and attempt to characterize the metallogeny through a comprehensive overview of the important VMS mineralizations in the belt. The VMS deposits in the northern part of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt occur in two different stratigraphic horizons consisting mainly of felsic volcanic rocks within the late Cretaceous sequence. SHRIMP zircon U–Pb analyses from ore-bearing dacites yield weighted mean ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages ranging between 91.1 ± 1.3 and 82.6 ± 1 Ma. The felsic rocks of first and second horizons reveal geochemical characteristics of subduction-related calc-alkaline and shoshonitic magmas, respectively, in continental arcs and represent the immature and mature stages of a late Cretaceous magmatic arc. The nature of the late Cretaceous magmatism in the northern part of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt and the various lithological associations including volcaniclastics, mudstones and sedimentary facies indicate a rift-related environment where dacitic volcanism was predominant. The eastern Pontides VMS deposits are located within the caldera-like depressions and are closely associated with dome-like structures of felsic magmas, with their distribution controlled by fracture systems. Based on a detailed analyses of the geological, geophysical and geodynamic information, we propose that the VMS deposits were generated either in intra arc or near arc region of the eastern Pontides orogenic belt during the southward subduction of the Tethys oceanic lithosphere.     

In situ zircon U–Pb dating and O isotopes of the Neoarchean Hongtoushan VMS Cu–Zn deposit in the North China Craton: Implication for the ore genesis

The Hongtoushan volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit is the largest Archean Cu–Zn deposit in China, located in the Qingyuan greenstone belt on the northern margin of the North China Craton. The Cu–Zn mineralization was stratigraphically controlled by the interbeds (~ 100 m in thickness) of mafic–felsic volcanic sets and overlain by banded iron layers. However, the relationship between VMS deposits and associated volcanics has not been examined. This study ultimately clarifies the times and sources of the volcanics and mineralization. Based on in situ zircon U–Pb and O isotope on VMS-hosting mafic, felsic volcanic rocks, banded and massive sulfide ores and postmineralization pegmatite vein, we considered that there were two main formation stages for the Qingyuan Cu–Zn deposits; one was exhalative-hydrothermal sedimentation and another was further Cu–Zn enriched by later hydrothermal processes. The timing of the first stage occurred at 2571 ± 6 Ma based on the magmatic zircons in the VMS-hosting mafic volcanic rocks, from which the inherited zircons also indicate the existence of 2.65–3.12 Ga ancient supercrustal rocks in the Qingyuan district. A modern mantle-like δ¹⁸Ozircon value of 5.5 ± 0.1‰ (2SD) for this volcanism was well preserved in the inherited core domains of ore samples. It suggests that the mafic volcanics was most likely sourced from partial melting of juvenile crust, e.g., TTG granites. A large-scale metamorphic or hydrothermal event is documented by the recrystallized zircons in sulfide ores. The timing is tightly constrained by the hydrothermal zircon U–Pb ages. They are 2508 ± 4 Ma for the banded ore, 2507 ± 4 Ma for the massive ore and 2508 ± 2 Ma for the postmineralization pegmatite vein. These indistinguishable ages indicate that the 2507 Ma hydrothermal systems played a significant role in the upgrading of the VMS Cu–Zn orebodies. The weighted δ¹⁸O values of hydrothermal zircons show a successively increasing trend from 6.0 ± 0.1‰ (2σ) for the banded ore, 6.6 ± 0.2‰ (2σ) for the massive ore to 7.3 ± 0.2‰ (2σ) for the later pegmatite vein. This variation might be induced by gradual inputting of the δ¹⁸O-rich oceanic crust and/or oceanic sediment during the hydrothermal cycling system. Considering its modern mantle-like oxygen isotope composition of 2571 Ma volcanism, a submarine volcanic hydrothermal system involving mantle plumes is a preferred setting for the Neoarchean VMS Cu–Zn deposits in the Qingyuan greenstone belt.     

The origin of the Dapingzhang volcanogenic Cu–Pb–Zn ore deposit,Yunnan province,SW China: Constraints from host rock geochemistry and ore Os–Pb–S–C–O–H isotopes

The Dapingzhang volcanogenic Cu–Pb–Zn sulfide deposit is located in the Lancangjiang tectonic zone within the Sanjiang region, Yunnan province of southwestern China. The deposit occurs within a felsic volcanic dome belonging to a mid-Silurian volcanic belt stretching for more than 100 km from Dapingzhang to Sandashan. The mineralized volcanic rocks are predominantly keratophyre and quartz keratophyre with subordinate spilite. The Dapingzhang deposit is characterized by well-developed vertical zonation with stockwork ores in the bottom, disseminated sulfide ores in the middle, and massive sulfide ores in the top, overlain by a thin layer of chemical sedimentary exhalative rocks (chert and barite). The Re–Os age of the pyrites from the deposit is 417 ± 23 Ma, indistinguishable from the age of the associated felsic volcanic rocks. The associated felsic volcanic rocks are characterized by negative Nb–Ta anomalies and positive ε_Nd(t) values (+ 4.4–+6.5), similar to the coeval calc-alkaline volcanic rocks in the region. This observation supports the interpretation that the felsic volcanic rocks associated with the Dapingzhang deposit are the derivatives of arc basaltic magma by extensive fractional crystallization. The δ³⁴S values of the sulfides from the deposit vary from − 1.24 to + 4.32‰, indicating a predominantly magmatic source for the sulfur. The sulfides are also characterized by homogeneous and relatively low radiogenic Pb isotope compositions (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 18.310–18.656, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 15.489–15.643 and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb = 37.811–38.662), similar to the Pb isotopic compositions of the associated volcanic rocks. The Pb isotopic data indicate that mantle-derived Pb is more prevalent than crust-derived Pb in the deposit. The S–Pb isotopic data indicate that the important ore-forming materials were mainly derived from the associated volcanic rocks. The δ¹³C_PDB and δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of the associated hydrothermal calcite crystals vary from − 2.3‰ to + 0.27‰ and from + 14.6 to + 24.4‰, respectively. These values are between the mantle and marine carbonate values. The narrow range of the δ¹³C_PDB values for the calcite indicates that carbon-bearing species in the hydrothermal fluids were primarily derived from marine carbonates. The δ¹⁸O values for the hydrothermal fluids, calculated from the measured values for quartz, are between − 2.1‰ and + 3.5‰. The corresponding δD values for the fluids range from − 59‰ to − 84‰. The O–H isotopic data indicate mixing between magmatic fluids and seawater in the ore-forming hydrothermal system. Similar to a typical volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit, the ore-forming fluids contained both magmatic fluids and heated seawater; the ore metals and regents were derived from the underlying magma as well as felsic country rocks.     

Boron,sulphur and copper isotope systematics in the orogenic gold deposits of the Archaean Hattu schist belt,eastern Finland

The Hattu schist belt is located in the western part of the Archaean Karelian domain of the Fennoscandian Shield. The orogenic gold deposits with Au–Bi–Te geochemical signatures are hosted by NE–SW, N–S and NW–SE oriented shear zones that deform 2.76–2.73 Ga volcanic and sedimentary sequences, as well as 2.75–2.72 Ga tonalite–granodiorite intrusions and diverse felsic porphyry dykes. Mo–W mineralization is also present in some tonalite intrusions, both separate from, and associated with Au mineralization. Somewhat younger, unmineralized leucogranite intrusions (2.70 Ga) also intrude the belt. Lower amphibolite facies peak metamorphism at 3–5 kbar pressures and at 500–600 °C temperatures affected the belt at around 2.70 Ga and post-date hydrothermal alteration and ore formation. In this study, we investigated the potential influence of magmatic-hydrothermal processes on the formation of orogenic gold deposits on the basis of multiple stable isotope (B, S, Cu) studies of tourmaline and sulphide minerals by application of in situ SIMS and LA ICP MS analytical techniques.Crystal chemistry of tourmaline from a Mo–W mineralization hosted by a tonalite intrusion in the Hattu schist belt is characterized by Fe^3 +–Al^3 +-substitution indicating relatively oxidizing conditions of hydrothermal processes. The range of δ¹¹B data for this kind of tourmaline is from − 17.2‰ to − 12.2‰. The hydrothermal tourmaline from felsic porphyry dyke swith gold mineralization has similar crystal chemistry (e.g. dravite–povondraite compositional trend with Fe^3 +–Al^3 + substitution) and δ¹¹B values between − 19.0‰ and − 9.6‰. The uvite–foitite compositional trend and δ¹¹B ‰ values between − 24.1% and − 13.6% characterize metasomatic–hydrothermal tourmaline from the metasediment-hosted gold deposits. Composition of hydrothermal vein-filling and disseminated tourmaline from the gold-bearing shear zones in metavolcanic rocks is transitional between the felsic intrusion and metasedimentary rock hosted hydrothermal tourmaline but the range of average boron isotope data is essentially identical with that of the metasediment-hosted tourmaline. Rock-forming (magmatic) tourmaline from leucogranite has δ¹¹B values between − 14.5‰ and − 10.8‰ and the major element composition is similar to that of the metasediment-hosted tourmaline.The range of δ³⁴S_VCDT values measured in pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite is from − 9.1 to + 8.5‰, which falls within the typical range of sulphur isotope data for Archaean orogenic gold deposits. In the Hattu schist belt, positive δ³⁴S_VCDT values characterize metasediment-hosted gold ores with sulphide parageneses dominated by pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite. The δ³⁴S_VCDT values are both positive and negative in ore mineral parageneses within felsic intrusive rocks in which variable amounts of pyrrhotite are associated with pyrite. Purely negative values were only recorded from the pyrite-dominated gold mineralization within metavolcanic units. Therefore the shift of δ³⁴S_VCDT values to the negative values reflects precipitation of sulphide minerals from relatively oxidizing fluids. The range of measured δ⁶⁵Cu_NBS978 values from chalcopyrite is from − 1.11 to 1.19‰. Positive values are common for mineralization in felsic intrusive rocks and negative values are more typical for deposits confined to metasedimentary rocks. Positive and negative δ⁶⁵Cu_NBS978 values occur in the ores hosted by metavolcanic rocks. There is no correlation between sulphur and copper isotope data obtained in the same chalcopyrite grains.Evaluation of sulphur and boron isotope data together and comparisons with other Archaean orogenic gold provinces supports the hypothesis that the metasedimentary rocks were the major sources of sulphur and boron in the orogenic gold deposits in the Hattu schist belt. Variations in major element and boron isotope compositions in tourmaline, as well as in the δ³⁴S_VCDT values in sulphide minerals are attributed to localized involvement of magmatic fluids in the hydrothermal processes. The results of copper isotope studies indicate that local sources of copper in orogenic gold deposits may potentially be recognized if the original, distinct signatures of the sources have not been homogenized by widespread interaction of fluids with a large variety of rocks and provided that local chemical variations have been too small to trigger changes in the oxidation state of copper during hydrothermal processes.     

Geological,geochronological, and H–O isotopic constraints on the genesis of the Tongjing Cu–Au deposit in the Ningwu basin,east China

The Tongjing Cu–Au deposit is a medium-sized deposit within the Ningwu volcanic basin, east China, and is hosted by Cretaceous volcanic rocks of the Dawangshan and Niangniangshan Formations. The veined and lenticular Cu–Au orebodies are spatially and temporally related to the volcanic and subvolcanic rocks of the Niangniangshan Formation in the ore district. The wall-rock alteration is dominated by silicification, siderite alteration, carbonation, sericitization, chloritization, and kaolinization. On the basis of field evidence and petrographic observations, two stages of mineralization are recognized: (1) a siderite–quartz–sulfide stage (Stage 1) associated with the formation of chalcopyrite and pyrite in a quartz and siderite gangue; and (2) a quartz–bornite stage (Stage 2) cutting the Stage 1 phases. Stage 1 is the main mineralization stage. Quartz that formed in Stage 1 has δ¹⁸O_H2O values of − 4.3‰ to 3.5‰ with δD values of fluid inclusion waters of − 97.1‰ to − 49.9‰, indicating that the ore-forming fluids were derived from early magmatic fluids and may have experienced oxygen isotopic exchange with meteoric water during Stage 1 mineralization.LA–MC–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating of the mineralization-related nosean-bearing phonolite and nosean-bearing phonolitic brecciated tuff at Tongjing yields ages of 129.8 ± 0.5 Ma and 128.9 ± 1.1 Ma, respectively. These results are interpreted as the crystallization age of the volcanic rocks of the Niangniangshan Formation. A hydrothermal sericite sample associated with Cu–Au mineralization at Tongjing yields a plateau ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar age of 131.3 ± 1.3 Ma. These results confirm a genetic link between the volcanism and associated Cu–Au mineralization. The Tongjing Cu–Au deposit in the Ningwu basin is genetically and possibly tectonically similar to alkaline intrusion-related gold deposits elsewhere in the world.     

Likely “mantle plume” activity in the Skellefte district,Northern Sweden. A reexamination of mafic/ultramafic magmatic activity: Its possible association with VMS and gold mineralization

Most attention has been given to the geology of the extensive VMS and subordinate precious metals mineralization in the Skellefte district. Less attention has been given to indications of deep-seated origins of felsic and mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks; of VMS and precious metals mineralizing fluids; and the primary origins of these metals. A holistic view of the significance of mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks to both the geotectonic evolution of the area and the existence of its important base and precious metals deposits has never been presented. These subjects are discussed in this investigation.Primitive mantle normalized spider diagrams of rare-earth-elements (REE) distinguish two groups of mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks, each with distinct geochemical characteristics: a mid-ocean-ridge “MORB”-type, and a geochemically unusual and problematic calc–alkaline–basalt “CAB”-type which is the main subject of this investigation. The “MORB”-type mafic volcanic rocks are mostly older than the Skellefte Group felsic volcanic rocks hosting the VMS deposits, whereas the more primitive “CAB”-type mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks are mostly younger.A common source for these “CAB”-type, mafic-(MgO wt.% < 14%) and ultramafic-(MgO wt.% > 14%) volcanic rocks is suggested by their similar and distinctive geochemical features. These are near-chondritic (Al-undepleted) Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios; moderate to strong high-field-strength-element (HFSE) depletion; light-rare-earth-element (LREE) enrichment and moderate heavy-rare-earth-element (HREE) depletion. They outcrop throughout an area of at least 100 × 100 km. Gold mineralization is spatially associated with ultramafic volcanic rocks.Zr and Hf depletion has been shown to be associated with Al-depletion in mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks elsewhere, and has been attributed to deep-seated partial melting in ascending mantle plumes. Zr and Hf depletion in “CAB”-type Al-undepleted mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks is therefore unusual. The solution to this dilemma is suggested to be contamination of an Al-depleted mantle plume by felsic crustal rocks whereby Al-depleted ultramafic magmas become Al-undepleted. It will be argued that this model has the potential to explain previous observations of deep-seated origins; the spatial association of ultramafic volcanic rocks with occurrences of gold mineralization; and even the primary origin of metals in VMS deposits.     

Geology,geochemistry, and geochronology of Fe-oxide Cu (± Au) mineralization associated with Şamlı pluton,western Turkey

The Şamlı (Balıkesir) Fe-oxide Cu (± Au) deposit, one of several iron (+ Cu ± Au) deposits in western Turkey, is hosted by porphyritic rocks of the multi-phase Şamlı pluton and metapelitic–metadiabasic rocks of Karakaya Complex. Two successive mineralization events are recognized in the area as; i) early magnetite and sulfide and ii) late hematite–goethite-native copper (± Au). Alteration associated with the mineralization in Şamlı is characterized by four distinct mineralogical assemblages. They are, in chronological order of formation, (1) plagioclase–early pyroxene (± scapolite), (2) garnet–late pyroxene, (3) chlorite–epidote, and (4) chalcedony–calcite alteration. Geochemical, isotopic (Sr, Nd, O, S) and geochronological (Ar–Ar) data from alteration and magmatic rocks suggest a temporal and genetic link between the multiphase Şamlı pluton and the hydrothermal system that controls the Fe-oxide-Cu (± Au) mineralization. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology on hornblende and biotite separates of the Şamlı pluton yielded an age range between 23.20 ± 0.50 and 22.42 ± 0.11 Ma, overlapping with ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age of 22.34 ± 0.59 Ma from alteration.The close spatial and temporal associations of Şamlı mineralization with porphyritic intrusions, pervasive Ca-rich alteration (calcic plagioclase, andraditic garnet, diopsidic pyroxene, scapolite, and epidote) are considered as common features akin to calcic assemblages in typical IOCG deposits. Besides abundant low-Ti (≤ 0.5%) magnetite/hematite, high Cu–moderate Au (up to 8.82 ppm) association, structural control and lithologic controls of mineralization, low S-sulfide content (chalcopyrite > pyrite) in the deposit; and the derivation of causative magma from subduction-modified subcontinental lithospheric mantle under a transpressional to transtensional regime, are collectively considered as the features in favor of IOCG-type mineralization for the Şamlı deposit.     

The possible synglaciogenic Ediacaran hematitic banded iron salt formation (BISF) at Hormuz Island,southern Iran: Implications for a new style of exhalative hydrothermal iron-salt system

The Ediacaran BISF at Hormuz Island is a newly identified glaciogenic iron-salt deposit in the Tethyan margin of Gondwana. The BISF was formed by synchronous riftogenic A-type submarine felsic volcanism and evaporate deposition. The mineralization occurs in a proximal felsic tuff cone and jaspilitic distal zones and contains 1 million tonne of hematite-rich ore with an average grade of 58% Fe. The ore structure shows cyclicity of macrobandings, mesobandings and microbandings of anhydrite, halite, hematite and chert, which marks a new record in BIFs geohistory. The alteration minerals in the proximal and distal zones are actinolite, ripidolite, epidote, sericite, tourmaline, clinochlore, anhydrite and clay minerals. The occurrence of metamorphosed polygenetic bullet-shape dropstones in BISF attests that there was probably a continuous process of ice melting, episodic submarine volcanism and exhalative hydrothermal banded iron salt formation during the Late Ediacaran time. The non-metamorphosed Neoproterozoic stratigraphy, the presence of genus Collenia, U-Pb dating (558 ± 7 Ma) and the marked negative δ¹³C excursion in cap carbonates are representative of Late Ediacaran glaciation, which has been identified worldwide. The REE+Y display light REE enrichment, unusually strong Tb-Tm anomaly, a weak positive Y anomaly, but no distinguished Eu and Ce anomalies, reflecting the glaciogenic nature of the BISF. The contents of Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, Th, La, Ce and Y in BISF, dropstones, halite and cap carbonates are similar to those of the Neoproterozoic glaciogenic BIFs. Also, the Ni/Fe, P/Fe ratios and Fe/Ti – Al/Al + Fe + Mn + Ca + Na + K diagram suggest an exhalative hydrothermal Ediacaran-type BISF. The absence of brecciated magnetite in the ore association and the low contents of copper (9–493 ppm) and gold (<5–8 ppb) are not in favor of the IOCG – Kiruna-type iron oxide ores. The co-paragenesis of hematite with several alteration minerals, in particular actinolite, tourmaline and anhydrite, indicates that the exhalative hydrothermal fluids were generated by the interaction of seawater with the felsic rocks and sediments at about 200–500 °C. The interaction of seawater with felsic magma and sediments led to the formation of Mg-rich alteration minerals, leaching Si, Fe, Mn and other elements and forming the potential ore fluids. It is highlighted that the A-type alkaline submarine felsic volcanism could be considered as an exploration target for BISF.     

Alkaline series related to Early-Middle Miocene intra-continental rifting in a collision zone: An example from Polatlı, Central Anatolia,Turkey

A large volcanic area (∼7600 km²), the Galatean Volcanic Province (GVP), developed in northwest Central Anatolia during the Miocene along the Neo-Tethys Ocean suture zone possibly by post-collisional processes. The GVP mainly comprises 20–14 My old acid to intermediate volcanites with a geochemical signature indicating a mantle source modified by earlier (Late Cretaceous) subduction-related events. 100 km south of the GVP, near Polatlı, Ankara, basaltic rocks that cover large areas are intercalated with the Miocene deposits of the Beypazarı basin, an intra-continental subsidence zone at the southwest of the GVP. Field observations, geochemistry and K–Ar age dating of the Polatlı volcanites show that they are Early (19.9 Ma) to mid (14.1 Ma) Miocene in age, covering an area as large as 215 km². Variations in lava thickness and the thickness of the underlying silicified/baked zones suggest that the basaltic lavas erupted from a southern source, possibly from the Eskişehir fault zone, and flowed northwards. Most Polatlı samples have chemical compositions that indicate derivation from a mantle source with crustal contamination during ascent. They do not display any characteristic to suggest a subductional component. Although the GVP and Polatlı lavas formed close in time and space, they were derived from different mantle sources. Considering the positions of these two magmatic regions with regard to the Tethyan suture zone, we propose that the mantle beneath the GVP and near the suture zone memorised the earlier subduction while the mantle beneath Polatlı that is located about 100 km further from the suture zone remained apparently unchanged. After a significant volume of magma was consumed in the GVP, a later (∼10 My) and last activity (Güvem activity) has produced quantitatively much less basaltic rocks where this subductional signature seems to completely disappear. Considering that the western Anatolian crust is proposed to undergo extension since the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene times, the Early Miocene intra-plate Polatlı activity may have developed within this extensional tectonic regime. Combined with regional data, Polatlı data also provide broad estimations on how long a subductional event continues to modify the mantle after the subduction ceased (at least ∼20 My), how long the subductional signature is preserved during significant magmatism (between 6 and 10 My) and how far the subductional effect disappears laterally on the mantle with respect to the collision zone (<100 km).     

The origin and geochemical evolution of the Woodlark Rift of Papua New Guinea

Geochemical, isotopic, and geochronologic data for exhumed rocks in the Woodlark Rift of Papua New Guinea (PNG) allow a tectonic link to be established with the Late Cretaceous Whitsunday Volcanic Province (WVP) of northeastern Australia. Most of the metamorphic rocks in the Woodlark Rift have Nd isotopic compositions (ε_Nd = + 1.7 to + 6.2) similar to the Nd isotopic compositions of rocks in the WVP (ε_Nd = + 1.3 to + 6.6; Ewart et al., 1992), and contain inherited zircons with 90 to 100 Ma U–Pb ages that overlap the timing of magmatism in the WVP. None of the metamorphic rocks in the Woodlark Rift have the highly evolved Hf and Nd isotopic compositions expected of ancient continental crust. Magmas were erupted in the WVP during the middle Cretaceous as eastern Gondwana was rifted apart. The protoliths of felsic and intermediate metamorphic rocks in the Woodlark Rift are interpreted to be related to the magmatic products produced during this Cretaceous rifting event. Some mafic metamorphic rocks exposed in the western Woodlark Rift (eclogites and amphibolites) are not related to the WVP and instead could have originated as basaltic lavas crystallized from mantle melts at (U)HP depths in the Late Cenozoic, or as fragments of Mesozoic aged oceanic lithosphere.Isotopic and elemental comparisons between basement gneisses and Quaternary felsic volcanic rocks demonstrate that felsic lavas in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands did not form solely from partial melting of metamorphic rocks during exhumation. Instead, the isotopic compositions and geochemistry of Quaternary felsic volcanic rocks indicate a significant contribution from the partial melting of the mantle in this region. When combined with geophysical data for the western Woodlark Rift, this suggests that future seafloor spreading will commence south of Fergusson Island, and west of the present-day active seafloor spreading rift tip.     

Tracing the ore-formation history of the shear-zone-controlled Huogeqi Cu–Pb–Zn deposit in Inner Mongolia,northern China,using H,O, S,and Fe isotopes

The original ore-fluid of the Huogeqi Cu–Pb–Zn deposit in Inner Mongolia, northern China, was enriched in heavy oxygen isotopes with δ¹⁸O values ranging from 9.9 to 11.4 per mil, which is characteristic of the metamorphic devolatilization of pelitic rocks. The δD values determined by direct measurement of syn-ore hydrothermal tremolite range from − 116 to − 82 per mil, lying between the domains of typical metamorphic fluid and meteoric water, which is in equilibrium with organic matter. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios indicate that the ore-fluid was derived from deep-sourced metamorphic fluid and interacted with organic-rich shale during fluid migration, which is consistent with the fluid evolution history revealed by a previous fluid inclusion study. Sulfides in the deposit are characteristically enriched in heavy S isotopes, with an average δ³⁴S value of 13.4 ± 6.2 per mil (1σ, n = 103). The S-isotope ratios are identical to stratabound sulfides generated through the non-bacterial reduction of Neoproterozoic marine sulfate (with δ³⁴S values of ~ 17 per mil). Previous studies on lead isotopes of sulfides revealed that the ore-forming metals (Cu, Pb, and Zn) at the Huogeqi deposit were also remobilized from a stratabound source. This source was syngenetically elevated in its Cu-, Pb-, and Zn-sulfide content as a result of submarine hydrothermal activities forming sulfide-rich layers within a rift tectonic setting. The Fe isotope ratios for sulfides are consistent with those of an intercalated iron-formation within the ore-hosting rocks, suggesting that the Fe in the sulfides was derived from local host rocks during sulfide precipitation and the Fe-rich rocks are favorable lithological units for high-grade mineralization. The heterogeneous sources of ore-fluid, S, ore-forming metals, and Fe are explained by a multistage genetic model, which is supported by the geological characteristic of the deposit. The enriched sulfides were subsequently remobilized and enriched by metamorphic devolatilization during the Permian and Triassic periods. The metamorphic ore-fluid ascended along a shear zone and interacted with organic-rich shale. Sulfides eventually precipitated within the shear zone at a shallower crustal level, especially where the shear zone intersected Fe-rich host rocks. This multistage genetic model has implications for mineral exploration. Greenschist to amphibolite facies terranes containing thick Neoproterozoic rift sequences are ideal regions for potential Cu–Pb–Zn mineralization. In particular, intercalated volcanic rocks within the rift sequences are indicative of high heat-flow and are ideal for the development of submarine hydrothermal systems. The primary structures hosting mineralization and ore shoots in the Huogeqi area are jogs in the shear zones. In addition, Fe-rich lithological units, such as iron-formations, are ideal hosts for high-grade ore.     

Alteration mineralogy,lithochemistry and stable isotope geochemistry of the Murgul (Artvin,NE Turkey) volcanic hosted massive sulfide deposit: Implications for the alteration age and ore forming fluids

The Murgul (Artvin, NE Turkey) massive sulfide deposit is hosted dominantly by Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline to transitional felsic volcanics. The footwall rocks are represented by dacitic flows and pyroclastics, whereas the hanging wall rocks consist of epiclastic rocks, chemical exhalative rocks, gypsum-bearing vitric tuff, purple vitric tuff and dacitic flows. Multi-element variation diagrams of the hanging wall and footwall rocks exhibit similar patterns with considerable enrichment in K, Rb and Ba and depletion in Nb, Sr, Ti and P. The chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REEs) patterns of all the rocks are characterized by pronounced positive/negative Eu anomalies as a result of different degrees of hydrothermal alteration and the semi-protected effects of plagioclase fractionation.Mineralogical results suggest illite, illite/smectite + chlorite ± kaolinite and chlorite in the footwall rocks and illite ± smectite ± kaolinite and chlorite ± illite in the hanging wall rocks. Overall, the alteration pattern is represented by silica, sericite, chlorite and chlorite–carbonate–epidote–sericite and quartz/albite zones. Increments of Ishikawa alteration indexes, resulting from gains in K₂O and losses in Na₂O and the chlorite–carbonate–pyrite index towards to the center of the stringer zone, indicate the inner parts of the alteration zones. Calculations of the changes in the chemical mass imply a general volume increase in the footwall rocks. Abnormal volume increases are explained by silica and iron enrichments and a total depletion of alkalis in silica zone. Relative K increments are linked to the sericitization of plagioclase and glass shards and the formation of illite/smectite in the sericite zone. In addition, Fe enrichment is always met by pyrite formation accompanied by quartz and chlorite. Illite is favored over chlorite, smectite and kaolinite in the central part of the ore body due to the increase in the (Al + K)/(Na + Ca) ratio. Although the REEs were enriched in the silicification zone, light REEs show depletion in the silicification zone and enrichment in the other zones in contrast to the heavy REEs' behavior. Hydrothermal alteration within the hanging wall rocks, apart from the gypsum-bearing vitric tuffs, is primarily controlled by chloritization with proportional Fe and Mg enrichments and sericitization.The δ¹⁸O and δD values of clay minerals systematically change with increasing formation temperature from 6.6 to 8.7‰ and − 42 to − 50‰ for illites, and 8.6 and − 52‰ for chlorite, respectively. The O- and H-stable isotopic data imply that hydrothermal-alteration processes occurred at 253–332 °C for illites and 136 °C for chlorite with a temperature decrease outward from the center of the deposit. The positive δ³⁴S values (20.3 to 20.4‰) for gypsum suggest contributions from seawater sulfate reduced by Fe-oxide/-hydroxide phases within altered volcanic units. Thus, the hydrothermal alteration possibly formed via a dissolution–precipitation mechanism that operated under acidic conditions. The K–Ar dating (73–62 Ma) of the illites indicates an illitization process from the Maastrichtian to Early Danian period.     

Provenance of Lower Cretaceous Wölong Volcaniclastics in the Tibetan Tethyan Himalaya: Implications for the final breakup of Eastern Gondwana

Lower Cretaceous volcanic lithic arenites, widely distributed in the Tethyan Himalaya, provide insights into the continental breakup of Eastern Gondwana. In southern Tibet they are represented by the Wölong Volcaniclastics. The volcanic rocks that contributed clastic material to the lower parts of this unit were predominantly alkali basalts, whereas rhyolitic/dacitic volcanism becomes the predominant source of the upper strata. Geochemical analyses of basaltic grains and of detrital Cr-spinels from the Wölong Volcaniclastics demonstrate the alkaline character of the volcanism and suggest “within-plate” tectonic setting for the volcanism. Zircon U–Pb ages confirm that this volcanism continued from ～ 140 Ma to ～ 119 Ma. Hf-isotope data on these Early Cretaceous zircons indicate that their parental magmas were mantle-derived, but in the later stage of magmatic activity mantle-derived magmas were mixed with partial melts derived from the continental crust.The Lower Cretaceous volcaniclastics occur along a broad belt paralleling the northern margin of Greater India. The onset of volcaniclastic deposition in the Himalayas appears to become progressively younger toward the west, but it ended synchronously during the Late Albian (～ 102 Ma). The low volume of volcanic rocks and their intra-plate tectonic setting suggest that they are the result of decompressional melting along extensional deep-seated fractures cross-cutting the continental crust, and reflect changes in regional intra-plate tectonic stresses when Greater India began to separate from the Australia–Antarctica supercontinent.     

SHRIMP zircon U–Pb geochronology,geochemistry and H–O–Si–S–Pb isotope systematics of the Kanggur gold deposit in Eastern Tianshan,NW China: Implication for ore genesis

The Kanggur gold deposit is located in the southern margin of the Central Asia Orogenic Belt and in the western segment of the Kanggur–Huangshan ductile shear belt in Eastern Tianshan, northwestern China. The orebodies of this deposit are hosted in the Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the Aqishan Formation and mainly consist of andesite, dacite and pyroclastic rocks. The SHRIMP zircon U–Pb age data of the andesite indicate that the volcanism in the Kanggur area might have occurred at ca. 339 Ma in the Early Carboniferous, and that the mineralization age of the Kanggur gold deposit was later than the age of volcanic rocks in the area. Geochemically, the andesite rocks of the Aqishan Formation belong to low-tholeiite and calc-alkaline series and display relative depletions in high field strength elements (HFSEs; i.e. Nb, Ta and Ti). The δ¹⁸O_w and δD_w values vary from − 9.1‰ to + 3.8‰ and − 66.0‰ to − 33.9‰, respectively, indicating that the ore-forming fluids were mixtures of metamorphic and meteoric waters. The δ³⁰Si values of 13 quartz samples range from − 0.3‰ to + 0.1‰ with an average of − 0.15‰, and the δ³⁴S values of 18 sulphide samples range from − 0.9‰ to + 2.2‰ with an average of + 0.54‰. The ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb values of 10 sulphide samples range from 18.166 to 18.880, 15.553 to 15.635 and 38.050 to 38.813, respectively, showing similarities to orogenic Pb; these values are consistent with those of the andesite from the Kanggur area, suggesting a common lead source. All of the silicon, sulphur and lead isotopic systems indicate that the ore-forming fluids and materials were mainly derived from the Aqishan Formation, and that the host volcanic rocks of the Aqishan Formation probably played a significant role in the Kanggur gold mineralization. Integrating the data obtained from studies on geology, geochronology, petro-geochemistry and H–O–Si–S–Pb isotope systematics, we suggest that the Kanggur gold deposit is an orogenic-type deposit formed in Eastern Tianshan orogenic belt during the Permian post-collisional tectonism.     

Base and precious metal mineralization in Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus: A review of geology and metallogeny and new data from the Kapan,Alaverdi and Mehmana districts

The polymetallic Cu–Au–Ag–Zn ± Pb, Cu–Au and Cu deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts of Armenia and the Nagorno–Karabakh region form part of the Tethyan belt. They are hosted by Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus paleo-island arc, which can be divided into the Kapan Zone and the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc. Mineralization in Middle Jurassic rocks of this paleo-island arc domain formed during the first of three recognized Mesozoic to Cenozoic metallogenic epochs. The Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous metallogenic epoch comprises porphyry Cu, skarn and epithermal deposits related to Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous intrusions. The second and third metallogenic epochs of the Lesser Caucasus are represented by Late Cretaceous volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits with transitional features towards epithermal mineralization and by Eocene to Miocene world-class porphyry Mo–Cu and epithermal precious metal deposits, respectively.The ore deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts are poorly understood and previous researchers named them as copper–pyrite, Cu–Au or polymetallic deposits. Different genetic origins were proposed for their formation, including VMS and porphyry-related scenarios. The ore deposits in the Kapan, Alaverdi and Mehmana mining districts are characterized by diverse mineralization styles, which include polymetallic veins, massive stratiform replacement ore bodies at lithological contacts, and stockwork style mineralization. Sericitic, argillic and advanced argillic alteration assemblages are widespread in the deposits which have intermediate to high-sulfidation state mineral parageneses that consist of tennantite–tetrahedrite plus chalcopyrite and enargite–luzonite–colusite, respectively. The ore deposits are spatially associated with differentiated calc-alkaline intrusions and pebble dykes are widespread. Published δ³⁴S values for sulfides and sulfates are in agreement with a magmatic source for the bulk sulfur whereas published δ³⁴S values of sulfate minerals partly overlap with the isotopic composition of contemporaneous seawater. Published mineralization ages demonstrate discrete ore forming pulses from Middle Jurassic to the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous boundary, indicating time gaps of 5 to 20 m.y. in between the partly subaqueous deposition of the host rocks and the epigenetic mineralization.Most of the described characteristics indicate an intrusion-related origin for the ore deposits in Middle Jurassic rocks of the Lesser Caucasus, whereas a hybrid VMS–epithermal–porphyry scenario might apply for deposits with both VMS- and intrusion-related features.The volcanic Middle Jurassic host rocks for mineralization and Middle to Late Jurassic intrusive rocks from the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone show typical subduction-related calc-alkaline signature. They are enriched in LILE such as K, Rb and Ba and show negative anomalies in HFSE such as Nb and Ta. The ubiquitous presence of amphibole in Middle Jurassic volcanic rocks reflects magmas with high water contents. Flat REE patterns ([La/Yb]_N = 0.89–1.23) indicate a depleted mantle source, and concave-upward (listric-shaped) MREE–HREE patterns ([Dy/Yb]_N = 0.75–1.21) suggest melting from a shallow mantle reservoir. Similar trace element patterns of Middle Jurassic rocks from the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone indicate that these two tectonic units form part of one discontinuous segmented arc. Similar petrogenetic and ore-forming processes operated along its axis and Middle Jurassic volcanic and volcanosedimentary rocks constitute the preferential host for polymetallic Cu–Au–Ag–Zn ± Pb, Cu–Au and Cu mineralization, both in the Somkheto–Karabakh Island Arc and the Kapan Zone.     

Nakhlak carbonate-hosted Pb(Ag) deposit,Isfahan province,Iran: a geological,mineralogical, geochemical,fluid inclusion,and sulfur isotope study

The Upper Cretaceous Nakhlak epigenetic vein-type Pb(Ag) deposit is located 55 km northeast of the town of Anarak in Isfahan Province, Iran. The deposit contains 7 Mt of galena-barite ore with an average grade of 8.33% Pb, 0.38% Zn, and 72 ppm Ag. The ore mineralization occurs as stratabound, epigenetic, steeply dipping, east-west–trending veins in faulted- or fracture-controlled Upper Cretaceous Sadar carbonates. Galena and barite are the primary minerals. Minor sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite occur as inclusions in galena. Cerussite with minor amounts of anglesite and plattnerite formed in the oxidized supergene zone. The ore and ore-related minerals were deposited in the hydrothermally dolomitized carbonate host rock containing saddle-shaped dolomite. Geochemically, the dolomitized carbonate host rocks are enriched in MgO, Fe₂O₃, MnO, Pb, Zn, and Ba, but depleted in CaO. The galena concentrate contains high values of Ag (932 ppm), Sb (342 ppm), Cu (422 ppm), As (91 ppm), and Zn (296 ppm); the presence of these trace elements indicates a low-temperature type of galena mineralization. This interpretation is corroborated by fluid inclusions containing 12.98 wt.% NaCl equivalent salinity; the inclusions homogenize at the low temperature of about 152.1 °C. The similarity between δ³⁴S_(V-CDT) values in Nakhlak barite and Permian–Triassic δ³⁴S marine sulfate values indicates that the Nakhlak sulfur was probably provided from evaporates of Permian–Triassic age. The δ³⁴S_(V-CDT) values of galena and barite samples occupy the ranges of − 1.04‰ to + 8.62‰ and + 10.95‰ to + 13.71‰, respectively, and are similar to Mississippi Valley–type (MVT) deposits. The low-temperature basinal fluids, evaporate-originated sulfur, and fault- or fracture-controlled galena-rich veins in the Nakhlak deposit resemble the type of geological features documented in Pb-rich MVT deposits.     

Petrogenesis of Neoarchaean volcanic rocks of the MacQuoid supracrustal belt: A back-arc setting for the northwestern Hearne subdomain,western Churchill Province,Canada

Rocks exposed in the MacQuoid-Gibson Lakes region, northwest Hearne subdomain, western Churchill Province, Canada comprise three major lithotectonic assemblages: the Principal volcanic belt; the metasedimentary MacQuoid homocline and; the Cross Bay plutonic complex. Neoarchaean supracrustal rocks of the belt range in age from <2745 to <2672 Ma and were intruded during the interval <2689 to 2655 Ma by diverse plutonic units ranging from gabbro through syenogranite, but greatly dominated by tonalite. Volcanic rocks occur only in the Principal volcanic belt and the MacQuoid homocline, are metamorphosed to amphibolite facies and vary from rare pillowed to common massive basalt and andesite, intercalated with less abundant, thin, dacitic to rhyolitic tuffs, lavas and volcaniclastic rocks. Basalt and andesite are dominated by subalkaline, FeO^T-rich tholeiites with less common calc-alkaline rocks with higher SiO₂ contents and variable trace element contents. Felsic volcanic rocks exhibit calc-alkaline affinities and similarly diverse trace element abundances. The diverse trace element chemistry of the basalt and andesite supports their derivation from a heterogeneous mantle source(s) capable of generating MORB-, Arc-, BABB- and boninite-like rocks. Two geochemically distinct, arc-like suites were generated through contamination of the primary mantle-derived magmas either via assimilation of lower or middle tonalitic crust, or through contamination of their mantle source through subduction. Geochemical features of the felsic volcanic rocks indicate that these formed via both anatexis of crust in the amphibolite ± garnet stability field and via fractionation of more primitive progenitors in mid-upper crustal magma chambers. ɛNd_{t = 2680 Ma} isotopic compositions cluster near depleted mantle, indicating that significant incorporation of older, >2700 Ma crust likely did not occur. ɛNd_{t = 2680 Ma} values for three specimens, one from each of the Arc-like suites and one BABB-like basalt are slightly lower than the remainder, suggesting very minor incorporation of slightly older crust.These features imply that the processes that generated the MacQuoid supracrustal belt required simultaneous tapping of geochemically distinct mantle reservoirs with concomitant anatexis of sialic crust (garnet stability field) and fractionation of felsic magmas in upper crustal magma chambers. Shallow water deposition of abundant volcaniclastic rocks and semipelite along with minor conglomerate and quartzite was broadly contemporaneous with this magmatism. We envisage a geodynamic setting characterized by tectonomagmatic processes similar to those of modern supra-subduction zone back-arc marginal basins such as the Sea of Japan. Therein, an extensional, back-arc setting, likely proximal to continental crust, provides an explanation for a broad swath of diverse mantle-derived rocks intercalated with less common felsic rocks as well as an abundance of immature clastic metasedimentary rocks.     

Geology and isotope geochemistry (C–O–S) of the Diyadin gold deposit,Eastern Turkey: A newly-discovered Carlin-like deposit

Diyadin mineralization is the first reported gold deposit located in a collisional tectonic environment in Eastern Anatolia. The mineralization is related to N–S and N10–20°W-trending fault systems and hosted within the Paleozoic metamorphic basement rocks of the Anatolide–Toride microcontinent. Calc-schist, dolomitic marble and Miocene and Quaternary volcanic rocks comprise the exposed units in the mineralized area. Geochemical signatures, alteration types and host rock characteristics of the Diyadin gold deposit resemble those of Carlin-type deposits. Mineralization is constrained by alteration of overlying volcanic rocks to younger than ~ 14 Ma (K–Ar).Carbon and oxygen stable isotope measurements of carbonate rocks were made on six drill holes (n = 81) with an additional four samples of fresh carbonate rocks from surface outcrops. Background carbonate rocks have δ¹³C_V-PDB ~ 1.8‰ and δ¹⁸O_V-SMOW ~ 27‰. Isotopically-altered host rock samples have decreased δ¹⁸O (down to ~+11.4‰) and variable δ¹³C (from − 3.6 to + 4.8‰). Postore carbonate veins and cave-fill material have distinctly different isotopic signatures, particularly carbon (from δ¹³C = + 8.4 to + 9.8‰). Whether this post-ore carbonate is simply very late in mineralization associated with the gold system, or is a completely different, younger system utilizing the same pathways, is unclear at present. Within the host rock sample set, there is no correlation between gold and δ¹³C, and a weak correlation between gold and δ¹⁸O, indicative of water–rock interaction and isotopic alteration. Both the isotopic data and structural mapping suggest that the main upflow zone for the deposit is near the northern portion of the drill fence. Additional data at multiple scales are required to clarify the relationship(s) between fluid flow and mineralization.     

Ore-forming process of the Huijiabao gold district,southwestern Guizhou Province,China: Evidence from fluid inclusions and stable isotopes

The Huijiabao gold district is one of the major producers for Carlin-type gold deposits in southwestern Guizhou Province, China, including Taipingdong, Zimudang, Shuiyindong, Bojitian and other gold deposits/occurrences. Petrographic observation, microthermometric study and Laser Raman spectroscopy were carried out on the fluid inclusions within representative minerals in various mineralization stages from these four gold deposits. Five types of fluid inclusions have been recognized in hydrothermal minerals of different ore-forming stages: aqueous inclusions, CO₂ inclusions, CO₂–H₂O inclusions, hydrocarbon inclusions, and hydrocarbon–H₂O inclusions. The ore-forming fluids are characterized by a H₂O + CO₂ + CH₄ ± N₂ system with medium to low temperature and low salinity. From early mineralization stage to later ones, the compositions of the ore-forming fluids experienced an evolution of H₂O + NaCl → H₂O + NaCl + CO₂ + CH₄ ± N₂ → H₂O + NaCl ± CH₄ ± CO₂ with a slight decrease in homogenization temperature and salinity. The δ¹⁸O values of the main-stage quartz vary from 15.2‰ to 24.1‰, while the δD_H2O and calculated δ¹⁸O_H2O values of the ore-forming fluids range from −56.9 to −116.3‰ and from 2.12‰ to 12.7‰, respectively. The δ¹³C_PDB and δ¹⁸O_SMOW values of hydrothermal calcite change in the range of −9.1‰ to −0.5‰ and 11.1–23.2‰, respectively. Stable isotopic characteristics indicate that the ore-forming fluid was mainly composed of ore- and hydrocarbon-bearing basinal fluid. The dynamic fractionation of the sulfur in the diagenetic pyrite is controlled by bacterial reduction of marine sulfates. The hydrothermal sulfides and the diagenetic pyrite from the host rocks are very similar in their sulfur isotopic composition, suggesting that the sulfur in the ore-forming fluids was mainly derived from dissolution of diagenetic pyrite. The study of fluid inclusions indicates that immiscibility of H₂O–NaCl–CO₂ fluids took place during the main mineralization stage and caused the precipitation and enrichment of gold.