Types of massive sulphide deposits in the Urals

Massive sulphide deposits in the Urals are found within volcanic and volcanic-sedimentary sequences of Ordovician to Middle Devonian ages. Four types of economic sulphide deposits have been recognized: Cyprus, Besshi, Urals and Baimak. The Cyprus-type copper sulphide deposits are hosted by mafic volcanites that occur in the basal parts of Palaeozoic volcanic sequences. The Besshi-type copper-zinc deposits are located within clastic sedimentary rocks intercalated with basalts and andesites. Zinc-copper deposits of the Urals-type are hosted by bimodal rhyolite-basalt assemblages, which occur at a higher stratigraphic level than those of Cyprus- and Besshi-types. The Baimak-type zinc-copper-barite deposits are associated with intrusive quartz porphyries which occur in the upper parts of bimodal volcanic successions. In addition there are some sulphide deposits of zinc-lead-barite and zinc-copper composition hosted by Ordovician terrigenous sequences which occur within depressions in Precambrian blocks. These types of sulphide deposits have been formed at various stages of divergence and convergence of the Earth's crust during the orogenic history of the Urals. Received: 27 June 1997 / Accepted: 14 May 1998     

Ferruginous and manganiferous haloes around massive sulphide deposits of the Urals

Proximal brecciform ferruginous and manganiferous rocks related to VMS deposits of the Urals are subdivided into jasperites, gossanites, and umbers, in addition to thin-bedded jaspers and cherts. The coherence of host rock composition and Mn–Fe-fertility of the sediments have been established. Fe-poor pink hematitic and gray sulphidic chert are typical of the felsic class of VMS deposits. In contrast the contents of Fe vary from high to moderate in ferruginous rocks enclosed in basaltic units associate with VMS deposits. Fe- and Mn-rich ferruginous rocks and umbers occur in association with limestones and calcareous sedimentary rocks in both types of volcanic sequences. A common feature of jasperites and umbers is the abundance of replacement textures of hyaloclastites and carbonates by hematite and silica. In addition, replacement of clastic sulphides by hematite and magnetite is a characteristic genetic feature of gossanites. All of these sedimentary rocks are accompanied by pseudomorphs of hematite and quartz formed after bacterial filaments. The abundance of replacement textures are supportive of the halmyrolysis model, in addition to hydrothermal sedimentary and sub-seafloor hydrothermal replacement theories. Study of chemical zonation of altered hyaloclasts shows depletion of their rims, not only in mobile Na, K, Mg, but also in immobile Al, Ti, and REE; whereas Si and Fe are concentrated in situ. The halmyrolysis model presented here, involving organic-rich calcareous hyaloclastic sediments, resolves the problem of subtraction of Al, Ti, REE and other elements, which are commonly immobile under hydrothermal conditions. The evolution of the halmyrolysis process from acidic reducing to alkaline oxidized conditions infers a possible range in transformation from Fe^II–Mg smectites to Fe-silicates and Fe-Si oxides as precursors of brecciform jasperite and thin-bedded jasper. The higher acidic, initial stage, of gossanite formation seems to be required for oxidation of organic matter and/or pyrite. The acidic condition facilitates the temporal preservation of “immobile” elements (Al, Ti, REE) in “immature”chlorite–hematite gossanites. Another peculiarity of the gossanite-forming processes is the likely sorption of P, U and V by iron hydroxides displacing sulphides. The general evolution of all ferruginous sediments results in complete Fe²⁺ oxidation and silicification accompanied by subtraction of other elements. The vertical diagenetic differentiation leads to concentration of Mn-carbonates, silicates and oxyhydroxides into the tops of jasperite and gossanite layers. Mn oxyhydroxides scavenge positively charged hydrated cations like Co and Ni. Near-vent bacterial communities may activate the processes of volcanic glass and sulphide degradation. The proposed processes of halmyrolysis followed by silicification, in situ, may resolve the enigma of silica-rich sediment formation in a silica undersaturated ocean. The discrimination between gossanite and jasperite is useful for elaboration of new criteria for local exploration of VMS- and Mn-deposits. Halo dispersion of gossanites covering an area about two to three times that of the massive sulphide deposit is a good vector for ore body discovery. Proximal gossanites can be differentiated from jasperites by presence of relic sulphide clasts or elevated contents of chalcophile elements (Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Bi, Te, As, Sb, Ba), noble metals (Au, Ag) and distinct REE patterns with La and Eu positive anomalies. The development of halmyrolysis and biomineralization models merit further elaboration and testing in on-going research, in order to add or revise theories of iron and manganese deposit formation.     

Antithetic behaviour of gold in the volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt

Detailed mineralogical and geochemical studies of the volcanogenic sulphide mineralization in the Spanish part of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) define two geochemical, mineralogical and spatial gold associations: (1) the Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas type in which the gold is enriched with (Co?±?Bi) in the stockworks and interaction zones at the base of the massive sulphide mound; and (2) the Rio Tinto-Aznalcóllar-La Zarza type in which the gold is enriched in facies with a polymetallic (Zn?+?Ag?±?As?±?Tl?±?Hg) signature in a distal position or blocked beneath the massive sulphides. The first type is localized within a domain covering the southern half of the belt which is characterized by an abundance of sedimentary facies. The paragenesis shows that the gold association formed at high temperature (>300?°C) during the initial phases of massive sulphide genesis; the gold, which occurs in patches of very auriferous electrum (Au?>?75?wt.%), was transported by chloride complexes. The second type is found in the northern domain of the belt where volcanic facies are predominant. The paragenesis shows that the gold association formed at lower temperature (<280?°C) late in the massive sulphide genesis. This gold was transported by bisulphide complexes [Au(HS)₂ ^?] and is contained in Ag- and Hg-rich electrum (up to 61.0 and 30.5?wt.% respectively) and/or auriferous arsenopyrite (mean of 280?ppm Au), two mineral expressions that are able to coexist. It would appear that sulphur activity and oxygen fugacity were important factors in controlling the distribution of gold between the two host minerals and also in determining the Ag content of the electrum. This antithetic behaviour of the gold in the IPB reflects differences in the gold mineralizing fluids that may be due to the geologic environment; i.e. either dominantly sedimentary and acting as a mechanical barrier for gold bearing fluids, or dominantly volcanic and more open to seawater circulation. The fact that possible complications can occur during massive sulphide genesis, in response to the source and evolution of the fluids, raises the question of whether one or two gold influxes are involved. For example, the two gold associations could derive from a single gold influx, with remobilization and redistribution of the gold from the early (Co?±?Bi) facies giving rise to the later gold paragenesis of the (Zn?+?Ag?±?As?±?Tl?±?Hg) facies; this would not have occurred or would have been limited at the Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas type orebodies. Alternatively, the two gold associations could reflect two separate evolutionary processes distinguished by the gold appearing either early or late in the hydrothermal fluids. Knowing the gold association of a massive sulphide deposit is an advantage when exploring for potential host facies.     

Correlation between compositions of ore and host rocks in volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits of the Southern Urals

The geology and typification of volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits of the Southern Urals are considered. The mineralogical-geochemical types of these deposits correlate with the composition of the underlying igneous rocks: Ni-Co-Cu deposits correlatedwith serpentinites (Ivanovka type); (Co)-Cu deposits, with basalts (Dombarovka type); Cu-Zn deposits, with basalt-rhyolite and basalt-andesite-rhyolite complexes (Ural type); and Au-Ba-Pb-Zn-Cu deposits, with basalt-andesite-rhyolite complexes with predominance of andesitic and felsic volcanics (Baimak type). The Ural-type deposits are subdivided into three subtypes: I, underlain by basalts (Zn-Cu deposits); II, hosted in felsic volcanic rocks of bimodal complexes (Cu-Zn deposits); and III, hosted in felsic volcanic rocks of continuously differentiated complexes (Zn-Cu deposits with Ba, Pb, and As). The above types and subtypes bearing local names are compared with global types of VMS deposits (MAR, Cyprus, Noranda, and Kuroko), to which they are close but not identical.     

The gold content of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits contain variable amounts of gold, both in terms of average grade and total gold content, with some VMS deposits hosting world-class gold mines with more than 100?t Au. Previous studies have identified gold-rich VMS as having an average gold grade, expressed in g/t, exceeding the total abundance of base metals, expressed in wt.%. However, statistically meaningful criteria for the identification of truly anomalous deposits have not been established. This paper presents a more extensive analysis of gold grades and tonnages of 513 VMS deposits worldwide, revealing a number of important features in the distribution of the data. A large proportion of deposits are characterized by a relatively low gold grade (<2?g/t), with a gradual decrease in frequency towards maximum gold grades, defining a log-normal distribution. In the analysis presented in this paper, the geometric mean and geometric standard deviation appear to be the simplest metric for identifying subclasses of VMS deposits based on gold grade, especially when comparing deposits within individual belts and districts. The geometric mean gold grade of 513 VMS deposits worldwide is 0.76?g/t; the geometric standard deviation is +2.70?g/t Au. In this analysis, deposits with more than 3.46?g/t Au (geometric mean plus one geometric standard deviation) are considered auriferous. The geometric mean gold content is 4.7?t Au, with a geometric standard deviation of +26.3?t Au. Deposits containing 31?t Au or more (geometric mean plus one geometric standard deviation) are also considered to be anomalous in terms of gold content, irrespective of the gold grade. Deposits with more than 3.46?g/t Au and 31?t Au are considered gold-rich VMS. A large proportion of the total gold hosted in VMS worldwide is found in a relatively small number of such deposits. The identification of these truly anomalous systems helps shed light on the geological parameters that control unusual enrichment of gold in VMS. At the district scale, the gold-rich deposits occupy a stratigraphic position and volcanic setting that commonly differs from other deposits of the district possibly due to a step change in the geodynamic and magmatic evolution of local volcanic complexes. The gold-rich VMS are commonly associated with transitional to calc-alkaline intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks, which may reflect a particularly fertile geodynamic setting and/or timing (e.g., early arc rifting or rifting front). At the deposit scale, uncommon alteration assemblages (e.g., advanced argillic, aluminous, strongly siliceous, or potassium feldspar alteration) and trace element signatures may be recognized (e.g., Au?CAg?CAs?CSb ± Bi?CHg?CTe), suggesting a direct magmatic input in some systems.     

Tungsten Enrichment in the South China—type Massive Sulphide Deposits

Tungsten is a characteristic element of the South China-type massive sulphide deposits that were formed on the continental crust.The high contents of tungsten in these deposits are attributed to the pri-mary enrichment of this element in the basement sequences of the region,providing an indication of the tungsten-enrichment in the continental crust.Tungsten in thd basement sequences was mobilized and trans-ported to the massive sulphides by a combination of different geological processes such as terrigenous sedimentation,submarine hydrothermal deposition and magmatic hydrothermal superimposition.     

Formation of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: The Kuroko perspective

The main objective of this paper is to identify the geochemical, hydrological, igneous and tectonic processes that led to the variations in the physical (size, geometry) and chemical (mineralogy, metal ratios and zoning) characteristics of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits with respect to space (from a scale of mining district size area to a global scale) and time (from a < 10 000 year time scale to a geologic time scale).All volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (VMSDs) appear to have formed in extensional tectonic settings, such as at mid ocean spreading centers, backarc spreading centers, and intracontinental rifts (and failed rifts). All VMSDs appear to have formed in submarine depressions by seawater that became ore-forming fluids through interactions with the heated upper crustal rocks. Submarine depressions, especially those created by submarine caldera formation and/or by large-scale tectonic activities (e.g., rifting), become most favorable sites for the formation of large VMSDs because of hydrological, physical and chemical reasons.The fundamental processes leading to the formation of VMSDs include the following six processes:

1. (1) Intrusion of a heat source (typically a 10³ km size pluton) into an oceanic crust or a submarine continental crust causes deep convective circulation of seawater around the pluton. The radius of a circulation cell is typically 5 km. The temperature of fluids that discharge on the seafloor increases with time from the ambient temperature to a typical maximum of 350°C, and then decreases gradually to the ambient temperatures in a time scale of 100 to 10 000 years. The majority of sulfide and sulfate mineralization occurs during the waxing stage of hydrothermal activity.

2. (2) Reactions between low temperature (T < 150°C) country rocks with downward percolating seawater cause to precipitate seawater SO²⁻₄ as disseminated gypsum and anhydrite in the country rocks.

3. (3) Reactions of the “modified” seawater with higher-temperature rocks at depths during the waxing stage cause the transformation of the “seawater” to metal- and H₂S-rich ore-forming fluids. The metals and sulfide sulfur are leached from the county rocks; the previously formed gypsum and anhydrite are reduced by Fe²⁺-bearing minerals and organic matter, providing additional H₂S. The mass of high temperature rocks that provide the metals and reduced sulfur is typically 10¹¹ tons ( 40 km³ in volume). The roles of magmatic fluids or gases are minor in most massive sulfide systems, except for SO₂ to produce acid-type alteration in some systems.

4. (4) Reactions between the ore-forming fluids and cooler rocks in the discharge zone cause alteration of rocks and precipitation of some ore minerals in the stockwork ores.

5. (5) Mixing of the ore-forming fluids with local seawater within unconsolidated sediments and/or on the seafloor causes precipitation of “primitive ores” with the black ore mineralogy (sphalerite + galena + pyrite + barite + anhydrite).

6. (6) Reactions between the “primitive ores” with later and hotter hydrothermal fluids cause transformation of “primitive ores” to “matured ores” that are enriched in chalcopyrite and pyrite.

Variations in the mineralogical and elemental characteristics, the geometry, and the size of submarine hydrothermal deposits are controlled by the following four parameters:

1. (A) The chemical and physical characteristics of seawater (composition, temperature, density), which depend largely on the geographical settings (e.g., equatorial evaporating basins),

2. (B) The chemical and physical characteristics of the plumbing system (lithology, fractures),

3. (C) The thermal structure of the plumbing system, which is determined largely by the ambient geothermal gradient, and the size and temperature of the intrusive, and

4. (D) The physical characteristics of the seafloor (depth, basin topography).

For example, the submarine hydrothermal deposits developed in basaltic plumbing systems are generally poor in Pb and Ba compared to those developed in felsic plumbing systems. The lower temperature systems are generally poorer in sulfides, but richer in iron oxides and sulfates. The higher temperature and larger hydrothermal systems tend to produce chalcopyrite and pyrite rich ores. Contrasts in the metal ratios between the Noranda-type Archean VMSDs and the younger VMSDs reflect the differences in the geothermal gradient of the plumbing systems. The submarine hydrothermal deposits developed in the near equatorial regions tend to form large continuous bedded type ores because of the likeliness of creating large stratified basins.The basic processes of submarine hydrothermal mineralization have remained essentially the same throughout the geologic history, from at least 3.5 billion year ago to the present.     

Preliminary observations of kaolinite in a volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit of Permian age

Summary The Permian Mount Chalmers copper-gold deposit in Central Queensland, Australia, has a mineralogy, form, and setting similar to the kuroko deposits of Japan. Clay observed in the Mount Chalmers deposit is considered to have formed by subsea-floor replacement of the footwall tuffs and dolomitic horizons, and by direct precipitation from the ore solutions on the sea-floor near the fumarolic orifice.X-ray powder diffraction study of the clay indicates the mineral is kaolinite, rather than another member of the kandite group. Resolution of the and doublet in the diffraction trace of this clay shows that the mineral is well-crystallized. Electron microprobe analysis indicates that some samples of this clay approach the theoretical chemical composition, while others carry minor amounts of impurity elements such as Fe, Mg, Ca, K, and Na. SiO₂:Al₂O₃ mole ratio for this kaolinite is similar to values reported in the literature.

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Kaolinite dans un gisement de sulphides Permien: Observations préliminaires

Résumé Le gisement de cuivre et d'or du Mont Chalmers Permien au centre du Queensland en Australie, a une minéralogie, une forme et une disposition similaire au gisement kuroko au Japon. On considère que les argiles observées au gisement Mont Chalmers ont été formées par le remplacement du fond sousmarine du sol tufeux et des couches dolomitiques et par la précipitation directe des solutions minérales sur le fond de la mer au voisinage de la fumerolle.L'étude par diffraction radiographique de la poudre d'argile montre que le minerai est du kaolinite, plutôt qu'un autre membre du groupe kaolinite. La résolution du doublet et dans le tracé de la diffraction de cette argile montre que le minerai est bien cristallisé. L'analyse par microsonde électronique indique que quelques échantillons de cette argile s'approchent de la composition chimique théorique, tandis que les autres contiennent des traces d'impuretés d'éléments tels que Fe, Mg, Ca, K et Na. La proportion moléculaire SiO₂:Al₂ O₃ de ce kaolinite est similaire aux valeurs présentées dans la littérature.

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With 3 Figures     

Regional oxygen isotope systematics of felsic volcanics; a potential exploration tool for volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt

Regional oxygen isotopic sytematics have been performed mainly on the felsic volcanic footwall rocks of the orebodies but also on purple schist characteristic of the hanging wall series, around two giant VMS deposits in the Spanish Iberian Pyrite Belt, Riotinto and La Zarza. As the terranes of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, these two giant deposits have been affected by the Hercynian tectono-metamorphic events, strongly modifying their geometry. About 60 and 40 samples were collected over a 10×4 km² area at Riotinto and a 3×2 km² area at La Zarza, respectively. Whole-rock powders were analysed for oxygen by CO₂-laser fluorination. At both sites, a same type of low-δ¹⁸O anomaly down to +3.6‰, well differentiated from the regional background (up to 20‰), was identified near the orebodies. The lowest δ¹⁸O values (+4 to +11‰) correspond to the chlorite hydrothermal halo, essentially restricted to the feeder zones of the orebody. Intermediate δ¹⁸O values (+9 to +15‰) correspond to the sericite hydrothermal halo, mostly developed laterally to the orebody until 0.5–1 km. The regional background (+16 to +20‰) is represented by spilitised volcanic rocks. A same kind of low anomaly, but with less contrast, was defined in purple schist in the immediate hanging wall of the orebodies. All these results demonstrate that, despite high geometrical modifications of the orebodies related to the Hercynian tectonics, oxygen isotopic anomalies recorded by volcanic host rocks during the emplacement of the mineralising hydrothermal systems are still identified. This strongly suggests that oxygen isotopic systematics could be useful to identify target areas in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, as already demonstrated on other VMS targets in the world.     

Geology of massive sulphide deposits in the Spanish-Portuguese Pyrite Belt

The Spanish-Portuguese Pyrite Belt covers a large area in the SW part of the Iberian Peninsula from Seville to the westcoast of Portugal. Total reserves of aprox. 1.000 million tons of massive sulphide ores have an average content of 46% S, 42% Fe, and 2–4% Cu+Pb+Zn. The stratiform sulphide deposits and accompanying manganese mineralizations are of synsedimentary-exhalative origin. They occur in a Lower Carboniferous, geosynclinal, volcanic-sedimentary rock sequence, strongly folded during the Hercynian Orogeny. A brief outline of the regional geology of this ore province is given, and the geology of three mining districts is described: Lousal (Portugal), La Zarza and Tharsis (Huelva Province, Spain). A close relationship between sulphide and manganese ores with the submarine, acid alkaline volcanism is emphasized. Solfataric activity is responsible for the formation of sulphides in the final stages of volcanic extrusions. The ore concentration in big deposits (ore-lenses with up to 100 million tons of massive sulphides) has been due to inflows of sulphide muds and/or detrital sulphides into newly formed depressions of a contineously changing seafloor topography due to volcano tectonic movements.     

The Iberian type of volcano-sedimentary massive sulphide deposits

The Iberian Pyrite Belt, located in the SW Iberian Peninsula, contains many Paleozoic giant and supergiant massive sulphide deposits, including the largest individual massive sulphide bodies on Earth. Total ore reserves exceed 1500 Mt, distributed in eight supergiant deposits (>100 Mt) and a number of other smaller deposits, commonly with associated stockwork mineralizations and footwall alteration haloes. Massive sulphide bodies largely consist of pyrite, with subordinated sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite and many other minor phases, although substantial differences occur between individual deposits, both in mineral abundance and spatial distribution. These deposits are considered to be volcanogenic, roughly similar to volcanic-hosted massive sulphides (VHMS). However, our major conclusion is that the Iberian type of massive sulphides must be considered as a VHMS sub-type transitional to SHMS. This work is an assessment of the geological, geochemical and metallogenic data available up to date, including a number of new results. The following points are stressed; (a) ore deposits are located in three main geological sectors, with the southern one containing most of the giant and supergiant orebodies, whereas the northern one has mainly small to intermediate-sized deposits; (b) ore deposits differ one from another both in textures and mineral composition; (c) Co and Bi minerals are typical, especially in stockwork zones; (d) colloidal and other primary depositional textures are common in many localities; (e) a close relation has been found between ore deposits and some characteristic sedimentary horizons, such as black shales. In contrast, relationships between massive sulphides and cherts or jaspers remains unclear; (f) footwall hydrothermal alterations show a rough zoning, the inner alteration haloes being characterized in places by a high Co/Ni ratio, as well as by mobility of Zr, Y and REE; (g) ¹⁸O and D values indicate that fluids consist of modified seawater, whereas ³⁴S data strongly suggest the participation of bacterial-reduced sulphur, at least during some stages of the massive sulphide genesis, and (h) lead isotopes suggest a single (or homogeneized) metal source, from both the volcanic piles and the underlying Devonian rocks (PQ Group). It is concluded that, although all these features can be compatible with classical VHMS interpretations, it is necessary to sketch a different model to account for the IPB characteristics. A new proposal is presented, based on an alternative association between massive sulphide deposits and volcanism. We consider that most of the IPB massive orebodies, in particular the giant and supergiant ones, were formed during pauses in volcanic activity, when hydrothermal activity was triggered by the ascent and emplacement of late basic magmas. In these conditions, deposits formed which had magmatic activity as the heat source; however, the depositional environment was not strictly volcanogenic, and many evolutionary stages could have occurred in conditions similar to those in sediment-hosted massive sulphides (SHMS). In addition, the greater thickness of the rock pile affected by hydrothermal circulation would account for the enormous size of many of the deposits. Received: 8 September 1998 / Accepted: 4 January 1999     

The gold-rich seafloor massive sulphide deposits of Tasmania

Four major high grade polymetallic massive sulphide deposits (Rosebery, Hercules, Que River and Hellyer) occur within the Cambrian Mount Read Volcanic arc in western Tasmania. The Central Volcanic Complex which is host to the ores is a high-K calc-alkaline andesite-dacite-rhyolite suite which has erupted through thick continental crust along an ancient continental margin. The presence of longitudinal faults which control both the locations of mineralization and younger grabben fill volcanic sequences indicate late stage rifting during the development of the arc.The youngest and least deformed deposits at Hellyer and Que River contain primary textural features within the sulphide mound such as colloform pyrite and chalcopyrite diseased and zoned sphalerits. Isoclinal folding of the Que River ores has caused partial sulphide recrystallization and a cleavage induced lamination which is easily confused with the primary sulphide lamination. The older Rosebery deposit has a sheet like form and a poorly developed alteration pipe. The massive sulphide sheet has been strongly deformed by folding and thrusting leading to a series of imbricate ore lenses. All primary sulphide textures at Rosebery have been destroyed by the later deformation and annealing events.The classic metal zonation within these deposits of Fe->Cu->Pb-Zn->Ag-Au->Ba enables a reconstruction of the original form of the sulphide mounds and the location of primary hydrothermal seafloor outlets. The mean gold grade of the polymetallic massive sulphides varies from 2–4 ppm with the best grades concentrated toward the stratigraphic hanging wall of the deposits associated with either the high grade zinc zone or the barite zone. Mt. Lyell, which is a large copper stock-work orebody in the southern part of the volcanic arc, shows a distinctly different association of gold with copper in the deepest part of the stock-work system. This bipartite association of Au-Zn in the hanging wall (e. g. Hellyer, Que River and Rosebery Zn-Ba zone) and Au-Cu in the footwall (e. g. Mt. Lyell and Rosebery Cu zone) has been observed in other seafloor massive sulphide ores world wide, and is considered to relate directly to the gold transporting mechanism.The footwall gold-copper association is the result of deposition of gold from the high temperature soluble gold-chloride complex due to decreasing temperature and increasing pH as the fluids move up towards the seafloor. On the other hand, concentration of gold in the upper lead-zinc-barium rich parts of massive sulphide lenses at Hellyer, Que River and Rosebery results from remobilization and transport of gold as the bisulphide complex, as the hydrothermal fluids move up through the previously deposited sulphide mound or blanket and out onto the seafloor continually mixing with sea water and becoming more oxidized. Gold is ultimately concentrated at the upper-most surface of the massive sulphide lens due to the continuation of this zone refining process throughout the evolution of the orebody.

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Zusammenfassung In dem kambrischen Vulkanbogen des Mount Read, Westtasmanien, gibt es vier hochwertige polymetallische, massive Sulfidlagerstätten: Rosebery, Hercules, Que River und Hellyer. Alle Lagerstätten liegen innerhalb des zentralen Vulkanit-komplexes, eines K-reichen, kalk-alkalischen Andesit-Dacit-Rhyolithes, der entlang eines alten Kontinentalrandes durch eine mächtige kontinentale Kruste eruptierte. Späte Riftphasen während der Bildung des Vulkanbogens werden durch längsgerichtete Störungen, die sowohl Ausfällungsorte als auch jüngere Grabenfüllungen steuern, angedeutet.Hellyer und Que River, die jüngsten und am schwächsten deformierten Vorkommen, enthalten innerhalb der Sulfide primäre texturelle Merkmale, wie kolloidalen Pyrit und Kupferkies, sowie zonierten Sphalerit. Isoklinale Faltung der Que River Lagerstätten verursachte eine teilweise Rekristallisation der Sulfide und eine schieferungsbedingte Lamination, die schwer von der primären Sulfidlamination zu unterscheiden ist. Die ältere Rosebery Lagerstätte hat eine plattenartige Form und einen schwach entwickelten Schlot. Die massive Sulfidplatte wurde durch Faltung und Überschiebung intensiv deformiert, so daß es zu einer dachziegelartigen Lagerung des Lagerstättenkörpers kam. Sämtliche primären Strukturen wurden so durch die spätere Deformation zerstört.Die klassische Zonierung der Metalle innerhalb der Lagerstätte, nämlich Fe->Cu->Pb-Zn>Ag-Au->Ba ermöglicht die Rekonstruktion der ursprünglichen Form und Lage der Sulfide am primären Ausfällungsort. Der durchschnittliche Goldgehalt der Sulfide liegt zwischen 2 und 4 ppm, mit Maxima innerhalb des Hangenden von hochwertigen Zinkoder Baritvorkommen.Mt. Lyell, eine große Kupferlagerstätte im Süden des Vulkanbogens, zeigt eine unterschiedliche Kupfer-Gold-Vergesellschaftung im tiefsten Teil der Lagerstätte. Dieses zweigeteilte Vorkommen, einmal von Gold und Zink in oberen Bereichen (z. B. Hellyer, Que River und der Rosebery Zn-Ba-Zone) und zum anderen von Gold und Kupfer in tieferen Stockwerken (z. B. Mt. Lyell und die Rosebery Cu-Zone) wurde weltweit bei mehreren Sulfidlagerstätten beobachtet. Dieses Phänomen wird direkt auf die Art des Transportme-chanismusses des Goldes zurückgeführt. Die Gold-Kupfervorkommen im tieferen Stockwerk resultieren aus einer Fällung von Hochtemperatur-Gold-Chlorid-Komplexen durch Abkühlung und steigenden pH-Wert während des Aufstiegs der Lösungen. Die Anreicherung von Gold in den höher gelegenen Blei-Zink-Barium-reichen Teilen bei Hellyer, Que River und Rosebery resultiert aus einer Remobilisation und einem Transport von Gold als Bisulfid-komplex, als Folge des Aufstiegs hydrothermaler Lösungen durch ältere Sulfide. Dabei werden die Lösungen auf dem Weg zum Ozeanboden kontinuierlich mit Meerwasser vermischt und bekommen einen mehr oxidierenden Charakter.Die Goldanreicherung direkt an der Oberfläche des massiven Sulfidkörpers ist die direkte Folge dieses fortlaufenden Prozesses während der Entwicklung der Lagerstätte.

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Résumé Dans l'arc volcanique combrien du Mont Read (Tasmanie occidentale), existent quatre dépôts de sulfures polymétalliques massifs à haute teneur: Rosebery, Hercules, Que River et Hellyer. Tous ces dépôts sont contenus dans le Complexe Volcanique Central, lequel consiste en une série andésitodacito-rhyolitique calco-alcaline riche en K, qui a fait éruption à travers une croûte continentale épaisse, le long d'une ancienne marge continentale. La présence de failles longitudinales, qui déterminent à la fois l'emplacement des minerais et l'existence de séries volcaniques jeunes de comblement de graben, témoigne de processus de rifting tardifs au cours de l'histoire de l'arc.Les dépôts de Hellyer et de Que River, qui sont les plus jeunes et les moins déformés, présentent dans les sulfures des structures primaires telles que: pyrite et chalcopyrite colloformes et blende zonaire. Le minerai de Que River a subi un plissement isoclinal, responsable d'une recristallisation partielle des sulfures et d'une foliation de schistosité, difficile à distinguer de la lamination originelle des sulfures. Le dépôt de Rosebery, plus ancien, présente la forme d'un feuillet avec une cheminée d'altération peu développée. Ce feuillet de sulfure massif a été fortement déformé par le plissement et par des failles de chevauchement qui ont engendré une série de lentilles de minerai imbriquées. Ces déformations ont provoqué la destruction de toutes les structures primaires des sulfures à Rosebery.La distribution zonée classique des métaux dans ces dépôts (FeCaPbZnAgAuBa) permet de reconstituer la forme originelle des ames de sulfures et de localiser les points d'émissions primaires sur le fond marin. La teneur moyenne en or dans les sulfures massifs polymétalliques varie de 2 à 4 ppm, les teneurs les plus élevées se concentrant vers le toit stratigraphique des sédiments associés, dans les zones à zinc ou à barite. Le Mont Lyell, formé d'un grand gisement de cuivre dans la partie sud de l'arc volcanique, présente une situation nettement différente: l'or y est associé au cuivre dans la partie inférieure du gisement. Une telle dualité d'association Au-Zn au toit (p.ex. Hollyer, Que River et Zone à Zn-Ba de Rosebery) et Au-Cu au mur (p.ex. Mt Lyell et zone à Cu de Rosebery) a été observée dans des amas de sulfures massifs en d'autres endroits du monde et est considérée comme résultant directement du mécanisme de transport de l'or.L'association Au-Cu au mur résulte du dépôt de l'or à partir de complexes solubles de chlorure d'or de haute température, dépôt provoqué par la baisse de température et l'augmentation du ph lorsque les fluides montent vers le fond marin. D'autre part, la concentration de l'or dans les parties supérieures à Pb-Zn-Ba des gisements de Hellyer, Que River et Rosebery résulte d'une remobilisation de l'or sous forme de complexes bisulfurés, lorsque les fluides hydrothermaux montent à travers les sulfures déjà déposés et arrivent sur le fond marin où ils s'oxydent et se mèlent continuellement à l'eau de mer. L'or est finalement concentré à la surface supérieure des lentilles de sulfure massif, grâce à la poursuite de ce processus au cours de l'évolution du gisement.

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Mount Read, , 4 , : Rosebery, Hercules, Que River Hellyer. , - -- , . , , , . Hellyer Que River, , , .: . Que River , . Rosebery . , . . , F- > - > Pb- > Zn- > Ag> . 2 4 m, . Mt. Lyell , . : (.: Zn-Ba Hellyer, Que River Rosebery) (.: Mr. Lyell Rosebery). . pH . , , , , . . .

     

Silver sulfotellurides from volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits in the Southern Urals

Summary This paper addresses Ag-sulfotellurides occurring in volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits of the Southern Urals. Cervelleite-like minerals were identified in ores from the Gayskoe, Yaman-Kasy, Severo-Uvaryazhskoe, Tash-Tau, and Babaryk deposits, where they occur in ores containing chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tennantite ± bornite. Other Ag- and Te-bearing minerals (electrum, hessite, stromeyerite and Ag-bearing chalcocite) are present in the association. A benleonardite-like mineral associated with sylvanite and native tellurium was found as a metastable phase in paleohydrothermal tubes relics from the Yaman-Kasy deposit. Formation of the sulfotellurides indicates relative low fTe₂ in the hydrothermal systems, insufficient for formation of most S-free tellurides. The significant Cu enrichment in cervelleite relates to the association with bornite. Broad variations in composition and physical properties of cervelleite-like sulfotellurides allow the supposition of the presence of several, as yet unnamed mineral species, which can be distinguished by Cu contents, Te/S ratios, and presumably by crystal structure.     

Heavy-mineral concentrates from rocks in exploration for massive sulphide deposits

A number of programs have investigated the use of rock geochemistry in the search for volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits in the Canadian Shield. Regional-scale studies have been successful in differentiating productive from nonproductive volcanic cycles. Wall-rock studies have successfully delineated alteration halos related to the mineralizing event. While an alteration halo has been identified around the South Bay massive sulphide deposit, this halo does not extend far enough from the deposit to be useful for reconnaissance purposes. The authors therefore tested the possibility of enhancing detection of a primary trace-element halo by using the heavy mineral fraction of the rocks.The geochemical dispersion of trace elements in the heavy-mineral fraction of rocks was investigated around the South Bay massive sulphide deposit, in the Superior Province of the Canadian Shield. Approximately 270 samples were ground to 74–500 μm (−35 +200 mesh) and separated using the heavy liquid bromoform. Following removal of the magnetic fraction, the samples were further pulverized, and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry for Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Fe, Mn, Co and Ni. Corresponding whole-rock samples were analyzed to provide for a comparative study with the whole-rock geochemistry.Analysis of the heavy-mineral fraction of rocks revealed strong and extensive halos of Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag persisting in some cases up to 10 km along strike away from the South Bay Deposit. By comparison, in the whole-rock data, halos of Pb, Ag and Zn were detected no farther than 1–2 km away from the deposit. Furthermore, trace-element content in the whole rocks appeared to be dominated by rock type; either multivariate statistical techniques, or separation of the data by rock type, was necessary to distinguish the anomaly related to mineralization. Trace-element content in the heavy-mineral concentrates was dominated by the presence of the sulphide minerals pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite, thus directly reflecting mineralization.Use of the heavy-mineral fraction of the rock eliminates the dilution effects of quartz and feldspar, allowing enhancement of trace-metal concentrations in sulphide minerals, and the delineation of strong and extensive halos of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag and Mn around the South Bay massive sulphide deposit. While the cost of preparation of heavy-mineral separates is higher than that for whole-rock samples, the anomaly clearly defined by the trace-element content of the heavy fraction avoids the need for costly major-element and subsequent statistical analysis, and increases target size by an order of magnitude. The heavy-mineral fraction obtained from rocks shows great potential as an exploration guide to volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits.     

Cyclic ore formation of some volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in the skellefte district,Sweden

The Näsliden and Rävliden deposits in the Skellefte field consist of stratiform massive sulfide ores associated with submarine volcanic and clastic rocks. The ores are pretectonic. Consequently, the orebodies are considered to have formed syngenetically with deposition of the host rocks. Banding and interlayering with host sediments are common features. Cu : Zn and Zn : Pb ratios of the ores show stratigraphically and laterally defined trends. Cu : Pb : Zn ratios correspond with those found in other deposits of volcanogenic origin. Nonstratiform breccia Cu mineralizations occur directly under the massive stratiform ores in the footwall rocks where hydrothermal alteration is strongest. Ore formation took place intermittently resulting in clusters of ore systems occurring at slightly different stratigraphical levels within each deposit.     

What processes at mid-ocean ridges tell us about volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

Episodic seafloor spreading, ridge topography, and fault movement at ridges find (more extreme) analogs in the arc and back-arc setting where the volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits that we mine today were formed. The factors affecting sulfide accumulation efficiency and the extent to which sulfides are concentrated spatially are the same in both settings, however. The processes occurring at mid-ocean ridges therefore provide a useful insight into those producing VMS deposits in arcs and back-arcs. The critical observation investigated here is that all the heat introduced by seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges is carried out of the crust within a few hundred meters of the ridge axis by ??350°C hydrothermal fluids. The high-temperature ridge hydrothermal systems are tied to the presence of magma at the ridge axis and greatly reduce the size and control the shape of axial magma intrusions. The amount of heat introduced to each square kilometer of ocean crust during its formation can be calculated, and its removal by high-temperature convection allows calculation of the total base metal endowment of the ocean basins. Using reasonable metal deposition efficiencies, we conclude that the ocean floor is a giant VMS district with metal resources >600 times the total known VMS reserves on land and a copper resource which would last >6,000?years at current production rates.     

Cyclic-facies analysis of geological sections at massive sulfide deposits of the Urals

Cyclic-facies analysis of stratified volcanic sequences in the ore-controlling depressions makes it possible to recognize the recurrent and genetically related sets of rock layers that make up micro-, meso-, and mega-scale eruptive cycles (elementary cycle, mesocycle, and megacycle). Massive sulfide ores occupy a specific position in geological sections. They are confined to the upper portions of elementary eruptive cycles and hosted in volcanosedimentary units, indicating their formation during the periods of waning volcanic activity. The elementary cycles are not all accompanied by ore mineralization. The mineralization is most complete in the upper elementary cycles of each eruptive meso- and megacycles.Translated from Litologiya i Poleznye Iskopaemye, No. 1, 2005, pp. 78–96.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Rudnitskii.     

Distinctive features of Late Palaeozoic massive sulphide deposits in South China

More than 20 sediment-hosted massive sulphide deposits occur in Late Palaeozoic basins in South China. These deposits are accompanied by a certain amount of volcanic rocks in the host sequence and are economically important for their Cu, Pb, Zn, Au and Ag reserves. The deposits and their host strata were commonly intruded by Mesozoic granitoids. Remobilisation of sedimentary ores and magmatic hydrothermal overprinting processes resulted in the coexistence of massive sulphides with vein-, skarn- and porphyry-type orebodies in the same region or within a single deposit. The ore-containing basins occur in different tectonic settings. The Lower Yangtze basin occurs on a passive continental margin, where the deposits are high in Cu and Au with minor Pb and Zn and recoverable Ag, Co and Mo. The ores have a lower concentration of radiogenic lead, and δ³⁴S values close to zero. Fluid inclusions are highly saline and Na-rich. Fluids and metals of the Lower Yangtze Region are interpreted to have been derived essentially from deep sources including the Precambrian basement. By contrast, basins of the Nanling Region formed in an intracontinental setting developed on a folded Caledonian basement. These deposits are higher in Pb, Zn, Sn and W, as well as Cu, with recoverable Ag, Sb, Hg, U, Bi, Tl and Mo. The ores are characterised by a higher concentration of radiogenic lead and a wide variation of δ³⁴S composition. Fluid inclusions have lower salinities and higher K⁺/Na⁺ ratios. Fluids are considered to have been sourced substantially from seawater by convection. Metals for the Nanling deposits were essentially derived from the Caledonian basement by leaching. The contrast in ore composition between these two regions appears to have been controlled by differences in basement composition of the ore-forming basins.     

On the relationship between auriferous talc deposits hosted in volcanic rocks and massive sulphide deposits in Egypt

The volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (e.g., Um Saki deposit) are associated with Precambrian coarse acid pyroclastic rocks. The upper contacts of the massive sulphide body are sharp and well-defined; while the keel zone to the mineralization is always associated with pervasive alteration, characterized by the presence of septechlorite and talc, associated with variable amounts of carbonate and tremolite. On the other hand, the economic talc deposits in Egypt are hosted intensively altered volcanic rocks. Besides talc, chlorite, carbonates and tremolite that occur in variable amounts in these deposits, anomalously high concentrations of gold are also present.The present study showed that alterations in the talc deposits of Darhib, El Atshan, Abu Gurdi, Egat, Um Selimat and Nikhira are similar to those occurring in the keel zone underlying the VHMS of Um Samuki and that the chemical modifications due to alteration processes (additions of Mg, Fe, Mn and Ca coupled with depletions in silica, alkalies, alumina and titanium) are comparable, even the host rocks are different, thus reflecting a genetic relationship. It is suggested that, the examined localities of talc deposits are hosted in the intensively altered volcanics in the keel zones of volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits. Recently, detailed geophysical prospecting program, including electric (resistivity, self-potential and induced polarization), electromagnetic and magnetic methods, was carried out at Darhib, Abu Gurdi and Um Selimat talc deposits. The quantitative interpretation of these geophysical measurements revealed the presence of subsurface bodies of sulphides. The present distribution of talc and allied minerals in Darhib, El Atshan, Abu Gurdi, Egat, Um Selimat and Nikhira could be explained by a tectonic process in which the coarse acid pyroclastic rocks with massive sulphides have tilted in such way that the footwall rock alterations (talc and allied minerals) are exposed on the present-day surface at these localities. Structural studies are currently under way in an attempt to explain the deformation regime that led to the present situation of talc deposits.Two distinct spatial and mineralogical associations of gold mineralization could be identified in the volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits and their footwall alterations (the keel zone) in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. These are (1) gold–silver–zinc association, and (2) gold–copper association. In the former, gold grades are very low and silver is anomalous. This association occurs typically in the upper levels of the VHMS deposit where low-temperature sulphides are abundant. Gold was deposited because of the mixing between the ascending hot solutions and the sulphate-rich seawater. The upper levels of Um Samuki sulphide body represent this association. Gold–copper association, on the other hand, typically occurs in the footwall altered rocks (the keel zone) and the lowest parts of the massive sulphide body. Gold grades reach up to 5.54 ppm, but the average is 1 ppm. Silver is very low, usually in the range of 4–10 ppm. Lead usually, but not always, accompanies gold in this association. Deposition of gold probably took place due to decreasing of temperature and/or increasing pH of the ascending hot brines. The keel zones at Darhib, Abu Gurdi, El Atshan, Um Selimat, Nikhira and Egat talc mines better represent this association.