Neoproterozoic arc–back-arc system in the Central Eastern Desert of Egypt: Evidence from supra-subduction zone ophiolites

Ophiolites are widely distributed in the Central Eastern Desert (CED) of Egypt, occurring as clusters in the northern (NCEDO) and southern (SCEDO) segments. Mineralogical and geochemical data on the volcanic sections of Wizer (WZO) and Abu Meriewa (AMO) ophiolites as representatives of the NCEDO and SCEDO, respectively, are presented.The WZO volcanic sequence comprises massive metavolcanics of MORB-like compositions intruded by minor boninitic dykes and thrust over island-arc metavolcanic blocks in the mélange matrix. Such transitional MORB-IAT-boninitic magmatic affinities for the WZO metavolcanics suggest that they most likely formed in a protoarc–forearc setting. Chemical compositions of primary clinopyroxene and Cr-spinel relicts from the WZO volcanic section further confirm this interpretation. The compositional variability in the WZO volcanic sequence is comparable with the associated mantle rocks that vary from slightly depleted harzburgites to highly depleted harzburgites containing small dunite bodies, which are residues after MORB, IAT and boninite melt formation, respectively. Source characteristics of the different lava groups from the WZO indicate generation via partial melting of a MORB source which was progressively depleted by melt extraction and variably enriched by subduction zone fluids. MORB-like magma may have been derived from ~ 20% partial melting of an undepleted lherzolite source, leaving slightly depleted harzburgite as a residuum. The generation of island-arc magma can be accounted for by partial melting (~ 15%) of the latter harzburgitic mantle source, whereas boninites may have been derived from partial melting (~ 20%) of a more refractory mantle source previously depleted by melt extraction of MORB and IAT melts, leaving ultra-refractory dunite bodies as residuum.The AMO volcanic unit occurs as highly deformed pillowed metavolcanic rocks in a mélange matrix. They can be categorized geochemically into LREE-depleted (La/Yb_CN = 0.41–0.50) and LREE-enriched (La/Yb_CN = 4.7–4.9) lava types that show an island arc to MORB geochemical signature, respectively, signifying a back-arc basin setting. This is consistent, as well, with their mantle section. Source characteristics indicate depleted to slightly enriched mantle sources with overall slight subduction zone geochemical affinities as compared to the WZO.Generally, CED ophiolites show supra-subduction zone geochemical signature with prevalent island arc tholeiitic and minor boninitic affinities in the NCEDO and MORB/island-arc association in the SCEDO. Such differences in geochemical characteristics of the NCEDO and SCEDO, along with the abundance of mature island arc metavolcanics which are close in age (~ 750 Ma) to the ophiolitic rocks, general enrichment in HFSE of ophiolites from north to south, and lack of a crustal break and major shear zones, is best explained by a geotectonic model whereby the CED represents an arc–back-arc system above a southeast-dipping subduction zone.     

Origin and tectonic setting of the giant Duolong Cu–Au deposit,South Qiangtang Terrane,Tibet: Evidence from geochronology and geochemistry of Early Cretaceous intrusive rocks

We constrain the origin and tectonic setting of the giant Duolong porphyry–epithermal Cu–Au deposit in the South Qiangtang Terrane of northern Tibet, based on new zircon U–Pb ages and Hf isotopic data, as well as whole-rock major and trace element data from poorly studied ore-associated intrusions in the Duolong area. The LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating indicates that the ore-associated rocks formed between 121 and 126 Ma. These ore-associated rocks are geochemically similar to low-K tholeiitic M-type granitoids and to mid- to high-K, calc-alkaline I-type granitoids. They have variable and predominantly positive zircon ε_Hf(t) values (− 1.4 to + 15.6) and variable crustal model ages (T^C_DM(Hf); 176–1122 Ma). Taking into account previous data and the regional geology of the study area, we propose that the ore-associated rocks originated from fractional crystallization of mantle-derived mafic melts and magma mixing of mantle-derived mafic and hybrid lower crust-derived felsic melts, and the hybrid lower crust included a mix of juvenile and older continental material. The Duolong porphyry–epithermal Cu–Au deposit formed within an ‘ensialic forearc’ of an active continental margin as a result of the northwards subduction of the Bangong–Nujiang Ocean crust beneath the South Qiangtang Terrane.     

Geological characteristics and genesis of the Jurassic No. I porphyry Cu–Au deposit in the Xiongcun district,Gangdese porphyry copper belt,Tibet

The Xiongcun district, located in the western segment of the Gangdese porphyry copper belt (GPCB), hosts the only known Jurassic mineralization in the GPCB, Tibet, PRC. The No. I deposit in the Xiongcun district is related to the Middle Jurassic quartz diorite porphyry (167–161 Ma) and the mineralization was formed at ca. 161.5 ± 2.7 Ma. Ore-bearing Middle Jurassic quartz diorite porphyry emplaced into the Early Jurassic volcano-sedimentary rock sequences of the Xiongcun Formation. Veinlets and disseminated mineralization developed within the Middle Jurassic quartz diorite porphyry and the surrounding metamorphosed tuff, hosting a measured and indicated resource of 1.04 Mt copper, 143.31 t gold and 900.43 t silver with an average grade of 0.48% copper, 0.66 g/t gold, and 4.19 g/t silver. The mineralization can be assigned to four stages, including three main stages of hypogene mineralization and one epigenetic stage. The main alteration associated with mineralization is potassic. Seven mineralization-related hydrothermal veins have been recognized, including quartz–sulfide, biotite–sulfide, magnetite–sulfide, quartz–molybdenite–sulfide, chalcopyrite–pyrite–pyrrhotite, pyrite and polymetallic veins. The S and Pb isotopic compositions of the ore sulfides and the Re contents of the molybdenite suggest a mantle source for the ore-forming materials with minor contamination from the subducted sediments. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope compositions of quartz in the ores suggest that both magmatic and meteoric waters were involved in the ore-forming process. The ore-bearing porphyry (167–161 Ma) and ore-forming (161.5 ± 2.7 Ma) ages of the No. I deposit correspond to the time of northward subduction of Neo-Tethys oceanic slab. The geochemical data of the ore-bearing porphyry indicate that the No. I deposit formed in an intra-oceanic island arc setting and the ore-bearing porphyry originated from the partial melting of mantle with limited contribution of subducted sediments. The genesis of the ore-bearing porphyry and No. I deposit is interpreted as being related to northward intra-oceanic subduction of Neo-Tethys oceanic slab in the Middle Jurassic time (167–161 Ma).     

Re-Os systematics and geochemistry of cobaltite (CoAsS) in the Idaho cobalt belt,Belt-Purcell Basin,USA: Evidence for middle Mesoproterozoic sediment-hosted Co-Cu sulfide mineralization with Grenvillian and Cretaceous remobilization

We report the first study of the Re-Os systematics of cobaltite (CoAsS) using disseminated grains and massive sulfides from samples of two breccia-type and two stratabound deposits in the Co-Cu-Au Idaho cobalt belt (ICB), Lemhi subbasin to the Belt-Purcell Basin, Idaho, USA. Using a ¹⁸⁵Re + ¹⁹⁰Os spike solution, magnetic and non-magnetic fractions of cobaltite mineral separates give reproducible Re-Os analytical data for aliquot sizes of 150 to 200 mg. Cobaltite from the ICB has highly radiogenic ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios (17–45) and high ¹⁸⁷Re/¹⁸⁸Os ratios (600–1800) but low Re and total Os contents (ca. 0.4–4 ppb and 14–64 ppt, respectively). Containing 30 to 74% radiogenic ¹⁸⁷Os, cobaltite from the ICB is amenable to Re-Os age determination using the isochron regression approach.Re-Os data for disseminated cobaltite mineralization in a quartz-tourmaline breccia from the Haynes-Stellite deposit yield a Model 1 isochron age of 1349 ± 76 Ma (2σ, n = 4, mean squared weighted deviation MSWD = 2.1, initial ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratio = 4.7 ± 2.2). This middle Mesoproterozoic age is preserved despite a possible metamorphic overprint or a pulse of metamorphic-hydrothermal remobilization of pre-existing cobaltite that formed along fold cleavages during the ca. 1190–1006 Ma Grenvillian orogeny. This phase of remobilization is tentatively identified by a Model 3 isochron age of 1132 ± 240 Ma (2σ, n = 7, MSWD = 9.3, initial ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratio of 9.0 ± 2.9) for cobaltite in the quartz-tourmaline breccia from the Idaho zone in the Blackbird mine.All Mesoproterozoic cobaltite mineralization in the district was affected by greenschist- to lower amphibolite-facies (garnet zone) metamorphism during the Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous Cordilleran orogeny. However, the fine- to coarse-grained massive cobaltite mineralization from the shear zone-hosted Chicago zone, Blackbird mine, is the only studied deposit that has severely disturbed Re-Os systematics with evidence for a linear trend of mixing with (metamorphic?) fluids.The new Re-Os ages and extremely high initial ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os ratios of cobaltite reported here favor a magmatic-hydrothermal genetic model for a multi-stage REE-Y-Co-Cu-Au mineralization occurring at ca. 1370 to 1349 Ma, and related to the emplacement of the Big Deer Creek granite pluton at ca. 1377 Ma. In our model, deposition of paragenetically early xenotime and gadolinite was followed by an influx of Mesoproterozoic evaporitic brines and magmatic-hydrothermal fluids containing metals and reduced sulfur derived from mafic and oceanic island-arc Archean to Paleoproterozoic rocks in the Laurentian basement. Cobaltite mineralization occurred upon cooling of these fluids at an inferred temperature of 300 °C or below.     

Oldest volcanic-hosted submarine iron ores in South China: Evidence from zircon U–Pb geochronology and geochemistry of the Paleoproterozoic Dahongshan iron deposit

The Dahongshan iron deposit is hosted in the Paleoproterozoic submarine metavolcanic rocks of the Dahongshan Group in the Yangtze Block, South China. LA-ICP-MS dating of hydrothermal zircon grains from the genetically associated albitite and dolomite albitite show ca. 2008 Ma ages that are consistent with the zircon ages from the host metavolcanic rocks (ca. 2012 Ma), and postdated the post-ore diabase dike (ca. 1724 Ma), marking the Dahongshan iron deposit as the oldest submarine volcanic-hosted deposit so far as known. The ore-hosting metavolcanic rocks in the Dahongshan deposit have low Ni (9.1–77.4 ppm), Cr (1.0–63.0 ppm) and Co contents (5.6–62.9 ppm), suggesting the fractionation of olivine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase within the magma chamber. The major and trace element features of the alkaline to tholeiitic metavolcanic rocks are consistent with high-degree partial melting of the mantle wedge metasomatized by melts enriched in high field strength elements (HFSEs), which were derived from the subducted slab in volcanic arc setting. Based on an evaluation of the morphology of orebody, ore fabrics, petrology and melt-fluid inclusions, as well as the geochemical characteristics of the major ore mineral (magnetite), we correlate the iron mineralization in the Dahongshan deposit with hydrothermal process induced by the high-temperature, high-salinity and Fe-rich brines derived through magmatic exsolution. The similar characteristic of Ce and Eu anomalies of the Dahongshan iron deposit and banded iron formations (BIFs) suggest that the Dahongshan deposit was formed in reducing environment, although the two types of iron ores were generated through distinct processes with hydrothermal processes dominating for the submarine volcanic-hosted iron deposits whereas the BIFs were formed through chemical precipitation.     

Zircon U-Pb geochronology and geochemistry of the intrusions associated with the Jiawula Ag-Pb-Zn deposit in the Great Xing’an Range,NE China and their implications for mineralization

Located in the eastern section of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, the Jiawula Ag-Pb-Zn deposit is classified as a volcanic to subvolcanic related vein-type ore deposit. New U-Pb zircon geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, mineral chemistry, and Sr-Nd isotope data are presented for the intrusions in the Jiawula deposit in order to evaluate the timing, petrogenetic type of the granitoid rocks, origin and evolution of magmatism, geodynamics, and to establish its relationship with lead-zinc mineralization. Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb analyses yield weighted mean ages of 150.1 ± 1.8 Ma for quartz porphyry, 148.8 ± 2.2 Ma for syenite porphyry, and 145.3 ± 1.9 Ma for monzonite porphyry, indicating a Late Jurassic (Yanshanian) magmatic event. An earlier magmatic event (Indosinian) occurred during the Late Permian to Early Triassic from ca. 254 Ma to ca. 247 Ma and is represented by granodiorite (254 ± 2 Ma), dacite porphyry (252.9 ± 4.8 Ma), and diorite porphyry (278 ± 4.1 Ma). Both the Indosinian and Yanshanian igneous rocks are classified as I-type granitoids. The late Jurassic intrusions are highly fractionated and characterized by negative anomalies of Eu, Sr, P, and Ti. The hypabyssal intrusions have initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values between 0.70458 and 0.70522, and ε_Nd(t) values of −3.4 to −0.2, indicating relatively older crust in Jiawula among more juvenile crust in this area. Magma generation in Jiawula is linked to juvenile lower crustal and slightly enriched mantle sources. The ∼250 Ma magmatic episode in Jiawula might be related to the subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk oceanic plate towards the south beneath the Erguna massif. The ∼150 Ma magmatic event occurred after the closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean followed by the change in subduction direction of the Paleo-Pacific plate. Varying temperature, stronger fractionation and higher oxygen fugacity related to the magmatic-hydrothermal transition caused Pb-Zn mineralization.     

Gold occurrences of the Archean North Atlantic craton,southwestern Greenland: A comprehensive genetic model

The North Atlantic craton of southwestern Greenland hosts several orogenic gold occurrences, although, to date, none is in production. Four gold provinces are distinguished and include Godthåbsfjord, Tasiusarsuaq, Paamiut, and Tartoq. In the Godthåbsfjord gold province, the hypozonal gold occurrences are aligned along the major ca. 2660–2600 Ma Ivinnguit fault. Orogenic gold mineralization correlates temporally with, and is related to, ductile deformation along this first-order structure. The northern part of the Tasiusarsuaq gold province is characterized by small hypozonal gold occurrences that are controlled by 2670–2610 Ma folds and shear zones. Auriferous fluids were focused into the structures in both gold provinces during west-directed accretion of the Kapisilik terrane (2650–2580 Ma) to the already amalgamated terranes of the North Atlantic craton. In the southern part of the Tasiusarsuaq gold province, hypozonal gold mineralization is hosted in back-thrusts (Sermilik prospect) and thrusts (Bjørnesund prospect) that formed at 2740 Ma and 2860–2830 Ma, respectively. The deformation is related to the ca. 2850 Ma accretion of the Sioraq block and the Tasiusarsuaq terrane, and the 2800–2700 Ma accretion of the Tasiusarsuaq terrane and the Færingehavn and Tre Brødre terranes.Mesozonal orogenic gold mineralization is hosted in an accretionary complex in the Paamiut and Tartoq gold provinces. Gold occurrences cluster over a strike extent of approx. 40 km in thrusts and complex strike-slip settings in lateral ramps. The timing of the E-vergent terrane accretion in both areas is unknown, and could either be at ca. 2850 Ma or 2740 Ma. In the eastern part of the Paamiut gold province, quartz veins and associated alteration zones were overprinted by granulite facies metamorphism and show evidence for partial melting. These outermost parts of the accretionary complex were involved in burial-exhumation tectonics during crustal accretion.Mainly three different orogenic stages related to gold mineralization are distinguished in the North Atlantic craton between ca. 2850 Ma and 2610 Ma. These are generally accretionary tectonic episodes, and gold mineralization is hosted either in reactivated fault systems between terranes or accretionary complex structures along the deformed cratonic margin. The larger orogenic gold occurrences formed at ca. 2740–2600 Ma that appears to be a period of orogenic gold mineralization globally, although significant gold resources in the North Atlantic craton have yet to be identified.     

Isotopic analysis of the super-large Shuangjianzishan Pb–Zn–Ag deposit in Inner Mongolia,China: Constraints on magmatism,metallogenesis, and tectonic setting

The super-large Shuangjianzishan Pb–Zn–Ag deposit is a newly discovered deposit located in the Huanggang–Ganzhuermiao polymetallic metallogenic belt of Inner Mongolia, NE China. The deposit's resource includes 0.026 Mt Ag, 1.1 Mt Pb, and 3.3 Mt Zn. The deposit is controlled by a NW-trending ductile shear zone and NE- and NW-trending faults in black pelite assigned to the lower Permian Dashizhai Formation. LREE enrichment, HREE depletion, Nb, Ta, P, and Ti depletion, and Zr and Hf enrichment characterize felsic magmatic rocks in the Shuangjianzishan Pb–Zn–Ag district. The ages of porphyritic monzogranite, rhyolitic crystal–vitric ignimbrite, and porphyritic granodiorite are 254–252, 169, and 130 Ma, respectively. Pyrite sampled from the mineralization has Re–Os isochron ages of 165 ± 7 Ma, which suggest the mineralization is associated with the ca. 169 Ma magmatism in the Shuangjianzishan district.Zircons extracted from the porphyritic granodiorite yield ε_Hf(t) values of − 11.34 to − 1.41, with t_DM2 dates of 1275–1901 Ma. The ε_Hf(t) values of zircons in the rhyolitic crystal–vitric ignimbrite and the ore-bearing monzogranite porphyry are 7.57–16.23 and 10.18–15.96, respectively, and their t_DM2 ages are 177–733 and 257–632 Ma, respectively. Partial melting of depleted mantle resulted in the formation of the ca. 254–252 Ma ore-bearing porphyritic monzogranite and the ca. 169 Ma rhyolitic crystal–vitric ignimbrite; dehydration partial melting of subducted oceanic crust resulted in the formation of the ca. 130 Ma porphyritic granodiorite. The porphyritic monzogranite was emplaced during the late stages of closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean during the transformation from a collisional to extensional tectonic setting. The ca. 170 and ca. 130 Ma magmatism and mineralization in the Shuangjianzishan district are related to subduction of the Mongolia–Okhotsk Ocean and subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean Plate, respectively.     

Lithostratigraphic and structural reconstruction of the Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag-Au Lemarchant volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit,Tally Pond group,central Newfoundland,Canada

The Lemarchant volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit (1.24 Mt grading at 0.58% Cu, 5.38% Zn, 1.19% Pb, 1.01 g/t Au, and 59.17 g/t Ag) is a bimodal-felsic VMS deposit hosted within the Late Cambrian (∼513–509 Ma) Tally Pond group of the Exploit Subzone in central Newfoundland, Canada. The deposit is hosted by andesitic volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks with subordinate dacite flows. The mineralisation is hosted by the dacites and is overlain by pillowed and massive basalts.Four structural breaks offset the local stratigraphic sequences including: 1) the LJ syn-volcanic shear zone; 2) the KJ syn-volcanic shear zone; 3) the Lemarchant thrust; and 4) the Bam normal fault. Deformation of the Lemarchant likely occurred during the Penobscot orogeny (486–478 Ma). Early deformation is marked with the local deformation of the LJ and KJ syn-volcanic shear zones during NW-SE compression which coincided with the development of the Lemarchant thrust. A late (<465 Ma) east trending normal fault, the Bam fault, affected the central portion of the Lemarchant area and down-faulted the southern portion of the study area relative to the northern portion.Immobile element systematics of all the sequences from the Lemarchant deposit are tholeiitic with transitional Zr/Y ratios (1.9–6.6), La_n/Sm_n ratios <1 (normalised to upper crust), and have primitive mantle extended rare earth elements profiles with slight light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched patterns with flat heavy REE (HREE), and weak to strong negative Nb, Zr, and Ti anomalies. Together, these geochemical features, coupled with an FIIIa signature, and existing mineralogical and Nd-Pb isotope data, are consistent with the rocks at the Lemarchant deposit having formed within a shallow (<1500 m) arc or migrating cross-arc seamount chain located within a young peri-continental rifted arc along the margin of Ganderia, within the Iapetus Ocean. The estimated shallow water emplacement of the deposit likely allowed boiling near or at the rock-sea water interface, ultimately resulting in precious metal enrichment of the Lemarchant deposit. It is suggested that cross-arcs within rifted arc environments may represent favourable exploration targets for precious metal-enriched VMS deposits.     

Geological setting of the Wassa gold deposit,SW Ghana

Including past production, current indicated and inferred resources, Wassa is a 5 Moz poly-deformed early-orogenic gold deposit located on the eastern flank of the Ashanti Belt, in southwest Ghana. It is hosted by metamorphosed volcanic, intrusive and sedimentary rocks of the Sefwi Group (ca. 2260–2160 Ma). Early mineralization has an Eoeburnean age (2164 ± 22 Ma, Re–Os on pyrite) and is characterized by quartz veins, by a carbonate alteration of the host rocks, and by deformed gold-bearing pyrite. Remobilization of this gold occurred during the late stages of the Eburnean Orogeny (~ 2.1 Ga) and is associated with quartz-carbonate veins with visible gold and euhedral pyrites.     

Neoproterozoic mafic-ultramafic layered intrusion in Quruqtagh of northeastern Tarim Block,NW China: Two phases of mafic igneous activity with different mantle sources

In this paper we report zircon U–Pb age, chemical compositions of rock-forming minerals, and whole-rock elemental and Sr–Nd isotopic data for the No. II mafic-ultramafic intrusive complex (N2MC) in the Quruqtagh area at the northeastern margin of the Tarim Block, northwestern China to evaluate its petrogenesis and tectonic significance. The N2MC with an exposure area of ca. 12 km² has a funnel-shaped cross-section and intruded the Paleoproterozoic basement. U–Pb zircon dating gives a crystallization age of 760 ± 6 Ma. Rock types of the N2MC include lherzolite, pyroxenite, gabbro and minor diorite. Major elements geochemistry of these rocks exhibits a tholeiitic trend with a wide range of SiO₂ contents (38.8–60 wt.%). On the other hand, they are systematically enriched in LILE, LREE and depleted in HFSE and HREE, thus leading to low HFSE/LREE ratios (e.g., Nb/La ≈ 0.3). Isotopically, the studied rocks are characterized by negative whole-rock εNd(t) values (? 7.6 to ? 2.8) and variable high (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i (0.7095–0.7059). These features, together with chemical compositions of the rock-forming minerals and the presence of the primary phlogopite and hornblende, suggest that N2MC was likely formed via crystal fractionation/cumulation (with negligible crustal contamination) of a tholeiitic magma derived from a metasomatized subcontinental lithosphere mantle (SCLM) in an extensional environment. The enrichment of the mantle source could be ascribed to the metasomatism by subducted-slab-released fluids before partial melting. Overall, reported Neoproterozoic igneous rocks throughout the Tarim Block constitute two major phases of Neoproterozoic igneous activities, i.e., ca. 825–800 Ma and ca. 780–745 Ma, respectively. Similar to that of many other Rodinian continents, this feature is interpreted to be related to the two phases of Neoproterozoic mantle plume activity under the Rodinia. Furthermore, there exist two types of mafic-ultramafic complex at Quruqtagh, i.e., the ca. 820 Ma carbonatite-bearing and the ca. 760 Ma tholeiitic, which could reflect the presence of two different mantle sources.     

Geochronology and metallogenesis of porphyry Mo deposits in east-central Jilin province,China: Constraints from molybdenite Re–Os isotope systematics

The east-central part of Jilin Province, located on the eastern continental margin of northeast China along the eastern Xing–Meng orogenic belt, hosts more than 10 large- and medium-scale Mo deposits. The major types of mineralization include porphyry, skarn, and quartz vein. To better understand the formation and distribution of porphyry Mo deposits in this area, we investigated the geological characteristics of the deposits and applied molybdenite Re–Os isotope dating to constrain the age and source of mineralization. The results, combined with existing data, show that: (a) the Daheishan Mo deposit yields an isochron age of 168.7 ± 3.1 Ma; (b) the Shuangshan Mo deposit yields an isochron age of 171.6 ± 1.6 Ma; (c) the Liushengdian Mo deposit yields a weighted mean model age of 168.7 ± 1.4 Ma; (d) the Jiapigou Mo deposit yields a weighted mean model age of 196 ± 4 Ma; and (e) the Sancha Mo deposit yields a weighted mean model age of 183.1 ± 1.8 Ma. Therefore, the Mo mineralization occurred in the Early–Middle Jurassic (196–167 Ma), during the late stages of magmatism or during the late evolution of magma chambers. The geodynamic setting at this time was dominated by subduction of the paleo-Pacific Plate beneath the Eurasian continent. The rhenium content of molybdenite varies from 0.2 to 99.7 ppm, suggesting that the ore-forming materials may come from a crustal source or a mixed crustal and mantle source.     

Geology,geochronology, geochemistry and ore genesis of the Wangu gold deposit in northeastern Hunan Province,Jiangnan Orogen,South China

The Wangu gold deposit in northeastern Hunan, South China, is one of many structurally controlled gold deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen. The host rocks (slates of the Lengjiaxi Group) are of Neoproterozoic age, but the area is characterized by a number of Late Jurassic–Cretaceous granites and NE-trending faults. The timing of mineralization, tectonic setting and ore genesis of this deposit and many similar deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen are not well understood. The orebodies in the Wangu deposit include quartz veins and altered slates and breccias, and are controlled by WNW-trending faults. The principal ore minerals are arsenopyrite and pyrite, and the major gangue minerals are quartz and calcite. Alteration is developed around the auriferous veins, including silicification, pyritic, arsenopyritic and carbonate alterations. Field work and thin section observations indicate that the hydrothermal processes related to the Wangu gold mineralization can be divided into five stages: 1) quartz, 2) scheelite–quartz, 3) arsenopyrite–pyrite–quartz, 4) poly-sulfides–quartz, and, 5) quartz–calcite. The Lianyunshan S-type granite, which is in an emplacement contact with the NE-trending Changsha-Pingjiang fracture zone, has a zircon LA-ICPMS U–Pb age of 142 ± 2 Ma. The Dayan gold occurrence in the Changsha-Pingjiang fracture zone, which shares similar mineral assemblages with the Wangu deposit, is crosscut by a silicified rock that contains muscovite with a ca. 130 Ma ⁴⁰Ar–³⁹Ar age. The gold mineralization age of the Wangu deposit is thus confined between 142 Ma and 130 Ma. This age of mineralization suggests that the deposit was formed simultaneously with or subsequently to the development of NE-trending extensional faults, the emplacement of Late Jurassic–Cretaceous granites and the formation of Cretaceous basins filled with red-bed clastic rocks in northeastern Hunan, which forms part of the Basin and Range-like province in South China. EMPA analysis shows that the average As content in arsenopyrite is 28.7 atom %, and the mineralization temperature of the arsenopyrite–pyrite–quartz stage is estimated to be 245 ± 20 °C from arsenopyrite thermometry. The high but variable Au/As molar ratios (>0.02) of pyrite suggest that there are nanoparticles of native Au in the sulfides. An integration of S–Pb–H–O–He–Ar isotope systematics suggests that the ore fluids are mainly metamorphic fluids originated from host rocks, possibly driven by hydraulic potential gradient created by reactivation of the WNW-trending faults initially formed in Paleozoic, with possible involvement of magmatic and mantle components channeled through regional fault networks. The Wangu gold deposit shares many geological and geochemical similarities as well as differences with typical orogenic, epithermal and Carlin-type gold deposits, and may be better classified as an “intracontinental reactivation” type as proposed for many other gold deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen.     

Geochronology and geochemistry of Late Cretaceous igneous intrusions and Mo–Cu–(W) mineralization in the southern Yidun Arc,SW China: Implications for metallogenesis and geodynamic setting

The Sanjiang Tethyan Metallogenic Domain (STMD) is an important part of the Tethyan giant metallogenic belt. The Yidun Arc is a part of the STMD in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Recently, four newly discovered Mo–Cu–(W) ore deposits related to granitic intrusions were found distributed along the north-south strike in the southern Yidun Arc, which are identified as the Xiuwacu, Relin, Hongshan, and Tongchanggou deposits herein. These four deposits formed along high-angle north-northwest or north-west strike-slip faults, with vein-type and porphyry-type Mo–Cu mineralization developed in the intrusions. Molybdenite Re–Os and zircon U–Pb dating together with zircon Hf isotopes and whole-rock geochemistry of the intrusions were studied to discern the relationship between mineralization and magmatism, metallogenesis, and tectonic settings. Molybdenite from skarn-type mineralization at the Hongshan deposit has a Re–Os isochron age of 81.2 ± 2.6 Ma (MSWD = 1.3, n = 5) consistent with previously published zircon U–Pb ages and Re–Os ages of porphyry-type Mo mineralization. These results indicate that the Hongshan is a Late Cretaceous porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo deposit. Zircon U–Pb ages of the granitic intrusions in the Xiuwacu, Relin, and Tongchanggou deposits varying from ~ 87.4 Ma to ~ 82.7 Ma. Combined with published molybdenite Re–Os age spectrum (~ 85 Ma to ~ 81.2 Ma), it is proposed that the Mo–Cu–(W) mineralization in the Shangri-La region is spatially, temporally, and probably genetically related to the Late Cretaceous granitic intrusions. The Relin, Hongshan, and Tongchanggou intrusions have high SiO₂ (65.2–70.0 wt.%), Sr (363–905 ppm), Sr/Y (22–72), and La/Yb (37–69) ratios, and low Y (11.6–17.0 ppm) and Yb (0.97–1.59 ppm), which displayed adakitic affinities. Their low MgO (0.66–1.44 wt.%), Mg# (25–46), variable negative zircon ε_Hf(t) values (− 7.9 to − 2.3), and Proterozoic two-stages Hf model ages (T_DM2 = 1.13–1.62 Ga) suggest that they were probably dominantly derived from partial melting of thickened lower continental crust. According to the tectonic evolution of the Bangong Meso-Tethys Ocean during the Late Mesozoic, the Late Cretaceous igneous event and mineralization in the Yidun Arc likely formed under a late- or post-collision extensional environment, probably related to the collision between the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes during the Late Cretaceous.     

Late Cenozoic basalt and gabbro in the subsurface in the Phetchabun Basin,Thailand: Implications for the Southeast Asian Volcanic Province

Fragments of basaltic and gabbroic rocks were obtained in cuttings from 15 exploration wells in the Na Sanun area of the Wichian Buri Sub-basin of the Phetchabun Basin in central Thailand. The samples represent flows and sills in lacustrine and fluvial sedimentary rocks of the Lower to mid-Miocene Wichian Buri Group. Mafic igneous units were identified in the sections based on their typically high-amplitude seismic reflections, confirmed by the examination of several hundred well cuttings and magnetic susceptibility measurements. Cross-sections of the sub-basin were constructed on the basis of previously published subsurface interpretations, seismic and well data, and petrological observations. Basaltic flows A, B, E, and F have ages of ca. 2 Ma, 16 Ma, 24 Ma and 18 Ma, based on inferred stratigraphic position. Gabbroic sill C and dioritic sill G are inferred to be correlative at ca. 11.6 Ma, and differ petrologically from ca. 12.8 Ma gabbroic sill D. Major minerals in both basaltic and gabbroic samples are plagioclase (ca. An₅₀), anorthoclase, and augite, with pervasive alteration to Na- and Ca- zeolite minerals and analcime. Leucodioritic sill G also contains amphibole and high Ti-phlogopite. Overall, the rocks show within-plate tholeiitic to alkalic characteristics, and show similarities to basaltic surface outcrops of similar ages in the Wichian Buri-Lop Buri area. No evidence was seen in the subsurface for the andesitic to rhyolitic rocks of similar ages that occur at surface, but their presence cannot be precluded based on our limited data.     

The Engineer Mine,British Columbia: An example of epithermal Au-Ag mineralization with mixed alkaline and subalkaline characteristics

The Engineer Mine epithermal precious metal deposit in British Columbia, Canada, is related to Eocene Sloko-Skukum-Group (SSG) volcanism and, according to previous studies, contains roscoelite in intimate association with electrum. Roscoelite, a vanadian mica, is considered characteristic of low-sulfidation epithermal deposits related to alkaline magmatism. This contradicts the fact that the SSG volcanics are subalkaline. In order to address this ambiguity and to accurately classify the style of epithermal mineralization at the Engineer Mine we conducted detailed petrographic, mineralogical, geochronological, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope studies.The principal ore assemblage of the Engineer Mine epithermal veins precipitated in response to boiling during a hydrothermal event at 49.90 Ma ± 0.25 Ma. During this event electrum, arsenopyrite, pyrite ± chalcopyrite ± sphalerite ± löllingite ± tetrahedrite-group phases ± allargentum ± acanthite ± hessite ± dyscrasite ± stibarsen ± galena and an unidentified Ag-rich phase were deposited in conjunction with amorphous silica, platy and rhombic calcite, K-feldspar, and vanadian illite. Fluid inclusion and stable isotope data suggest that the ore-forming fluid was boiling at ∼220 °C during vein mineralization and had an isotopic composition derived from local meteoric water. Based on these results the Engineer Mine is classified as an epithermal low-sulfidation deposit, which shares similarities with alkaline and subalkaline epithermal low-sulfidation deposits. This is attributed to the fact that the SSG volcanic rocks are borderline subalkaline to alkaline in character and that the sedimentary host rocks are vanadium-bearing. These sedimentary rocks contributed the bulk of the vanadium to the Engineer Mine epithermal system. The presence of roscoelite at the Engineer Mine could not be confirmed during this study. The mica referred to as roscoelite in previous publications instead is vanadian illite. To our knowledge the only alkaline low-sulfidation epithermal precious metal deposit that contains V-mica which exclusively qualifies as true roscoelite is the Porgera deposit, Papua New Guinea.     

A new genetic model for the Triassic Yangyang iron-oxide–apatite deposit,South Korea: Constraints from in situ U–Pb and trace element analyses of accessory minerals

The Yangyang iron-oxide–apatite deposit in South Korea has undergone multiple episodes of igneous activity, deformation, hydrothermal alteration, and iron-oxide–apatite (IOA) mineralization. The iron orebodies occur as concordant- to discordant-layered lenticular or massive magnetite and/or magnetite–pyrite ores. The iron mineralization occurs along a N–S-trending shear zone within the Yangyang syenite, which experienced both early ductile and later brittle deformations. Alteration was caused mainly by the injection of hydrothermal fluid through the shear zone, leading to Fe–P mineralization. We recognize multiple stages of alteration in the Yangyang deposit, based on a paragenesis that is defined by distinct mineral assemblages including Na–Ca–K alteration phases (e.g., albite, diopside, actinolite, and biotite) and accessory minerals containing high field strength elements (e.g., apatite, sphene, allanite, and monazite). The alteration around the magnetite ore body shows an evolutionary trend from Ca (–Na) alteration, through K to phyllic alterations. The Fe–P mineralization is associated with the Ca–K and K alteration products. The iron orebodies are hosted by deformed and altered syenite, which intruded the Paleoproterozoic gneiss complexes at 233 ± 1 Ma (SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age) in a post-collisional tectonic setting. LA-ICP-MS U–Pb dating of REE-rich sphene and apatite from the iron ores and alteration products yields Fe mineralization ages of 216 ± 3 Ma (sphene) and 212 ± 13 Ma (apatite). This is the first time, which IOA-type mineralization in the Korean Peninsula was dated as Triassic age related to post-collisional magmatism within the Gyeonggi Massif, South Korea. The U–Pb system was subsequently reset (208 ± 3 Ma–sphene and 151 ± 13 Ma–apatite) by Jurassic and Cretaceous magmatism. This unique geological evolution was responsible for Mesozoic metal enrichment and remobilization into suitable structural traps in the Yangyang district.     

Nickel sulfide deposits in Australia: Characteristics,resources, and potential

Australia's nickel sulfide industry has had a fluctuating history since the discovery in 1966 of massive sulfides at Kambalda in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia. Periods of buoyant nickel prices and high demand, speculative exploration, and frenetic investment (the ‘nickel boom’ years) have been interspersed by protracted periods of relatively depressed metal prices, exploration inactivity, and low discovery rates. Despite this unpredictable evolution, the industry has had a significant impact on the world nickel scene with Australia having a global resource of nickel metal from sulfide ores of ∼ 12.9 Mt, five world-class deposits (> 1 Mt contained Ni), and a production status of number three after Russia and Canada. More than 90% of the nation's known global resources of nickel metal from sulfide sources were discovered during the relative short period of 1966 to 1973. Australia's nickel sulfide deposits are associated with ultramafic and/or mafic igneous rocks in three major geotectonic settings: (1) Archean komatiites emplaced in rift zones of granite–greenstone belts; (2) Precambrian tholeiitic mafic–ultramafic intrusions emplaced in rift zones of Archean cratons and Proterozoic orogens; and (3) hydrothermal-remobilized deposits of various ages and settings. The komatiitic association is economically by far the most important, accounting for more than 95% of the nation's identified nickel sulfide resources. The ages of Australian komatiitic- and tholeiitic-hosted deposits generally correlate with three major global-scale nickel-metallogenic events at ∼ 3000 Ma, ∼ 2700 Ma, and ∼ 1900 Ma. These events are interpreted to correspond to periods of juvenile crustal growth and the development of large volumes of primitive komatiitic and tholeiitic magmas caused by large-scale mantle overturn and mantle plume activities. There is considerable potential for the further discovery of komatiite-hosted deposits in Archean granite–greenstone terranes including both large, and smaller high-grade (5 to 9% Ni) deposits, that may be enriched in PGEs (2 to 5 g/t), especially where the host ultramafic sequences are poorly exposed.Analysis of the major komatiite provinces of the world reveals that fertile komatiitic sequences are generally of late Archean (∼ 2700 Ma) or Paleoproterozoic (∼ 1900 Ma) age, have dominantly Al-undepleted (Al₂O₃/TiO₂ = 15 to 25) chemical affinities, and often occur with sulfur-bearing country rocks in dynamic high-magma-flux environments, such as compound sheet flows with internal pathways facies (Kambalda-type) or dunitic compound sheet flow facies (Mt Keith-type). Most Precambrian provinces in Australia, particularly the Proterozoic orogenic belts, contain an abundance of sulfur-saturated tholeiitic mafic ± ultramafic intrusions that have not been fully investigated for their potential to host basal Ni–Cu sulfides (Voisey's Bay-type mineralization). The major exploration challenges for finding these deposits are to determine the pre-deformational geometries and younging directions of the intrusions, and to locate structural depressions in the basal contacts and feeder conduits under cover. Stratabound PGE–Ni–Cu ± Cr deposits hosted by large Archean–Proterozoic layered mafic–ultramafic intrusions (Munni Munni, Panton) of tholeiitic affinity have comparable global nickel resources to many komatiite deposits, but low-grades (< 0.2% Ni). There are also hydrothermal nickel sulfide deposits, including the unusual Avebury deposit in western Tasmania, and some potential for ‘Noril'sk-type’ Ni–Cu–PGE deposits associated with major flood basaltic provinces in western and northern Australia.     

Evidence for Ordovician subduction-related magmatism in the Truong Son terrane,SE Laos: Implications for Gondwana evolution and porphyry Cu exploration potential in SE Asia

The Truong Son Fold Belt (TSFB) is characterised by Late Carboniferous-Late Triassic metamorphic, volcanic and plutonic rocks, the product of accretion of the Indochina Terrane onto the South China Terrane and a range of composite subduction, collision and extensional events. This study discusses geochronological and geochemical data obtained from a dioritic intrusion and rhyolitic tuff mapped in the Donken area of SE Laos, and previously assigned to the Permian Antoum Granodiorite rock suite within the TSFB. Magmatic zircon U-Pb Q-ICP-MS dating undertaken in this study suggests ages of ca 470 ± 2 Ma for the diorite and ca 476 ± 1.5 Ma for a proximal rhyolitic tuff.Whole-rock geochemistry of both units suggests a subduction-related island arc environment, with calc-alkaline and tholeiitic affinities for the diorite and tuff respectively. The intrusion also exhibits an adakitic signature (high Sr, low Y and HREE contents) suggesting that Ordovician magmatism also occurred within the Indochina Terrane, associated with an enigmatic, early Gondwana subduction event. This intrusion appears part of a broader, bilateral Early Ordovician magmatism, newly linked to the south-east subduction of the Tamky-Phuoc Son Ocean underneath the Kontum terrane, and a north-west subduction beneath the Truong Son terrane. Significantly, sub-economic hydrothermal Cu mineralisation observed within the dioritic intrusion, hints at the presence of local Ordovician, porphyry-style base metal enrichment.     

K–Ar ages of plutonism and mineralization at the Shizhuyuan W–Sn–Bi–Mo deposit,Hunan Province,China

The Qianlishan granite complex, situated 16 km southeast of Chenzhou City, Hunan Province, China, hosts the Shizhuyuan W–Sn–Bi–Mo deposit. This complex, which intruded the Protozoic metasedimentary rocks and the Devonian clastic sedimentary and carbonate rocks, consists of mainly medium- to coarse-grained biotite granites and minor amounts of fine-grained biotite granite in addition to granite and quartz porphyry. K–Ar ages suggest three episodes of plutonism: the medium- to coarse-grained biotite granite (before 152 Ma), the fine-grained biotite granite (137 Ma), and the granite porphyry (129–131 Ma). Muscovite ages of the greisen are 145–148 Ma, suggesting that the W–Sn–Bi–Mo mineralization was related to the main, medium- to coarse-grained biotite granites. The K–Ar age of the hydrothermal vein mineralization is 92 Ma and is probably related to the porphyries.